Navigating the Mind: Your Ultimate Guide to Mastering the PSYC
140 Final Exam
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide Latest Updated 2025/2026.
Dispositions - ansInternal factors, such as beliefs, values, personality traits, and abilities, that
guide a person's behaviors
Schemas - ansA knowledge structure consisting of any organized body of stored information
that is used to help in understanding events.
Natural selection - ansAn evolutionary process that molds animals and plants so that traits
that enhance the probability of survival and reproduction are passed on to subsequent
generations.
Parental investment - ansThe evolutionary principle that costs and benefits are associated
with reproduction and the nurturing of offspring. Because these costs and benefits are
different for males and females, one gender will normally value and invest more in each child
than will the other.
Naturalistic fallacy - ansThe claim that the way things are is the way they should be.
Independent (individualistic) culture - ansA culture in which people tend to think of
themselves as distinct social entities, tied to each other by voluntary bonds of affection and
organizational memberships but essentially separate from other people and having attributes
that exist in the absence of any connection to others.
Interdependent (collectivistic) culture - ansA culture in which people tend to think of
themselves as part of a collective, inextricably tied to others in their group and placing less
importance on individual freedom or personal control over their lives.
-Emphasizes interdependent, cooperation, welfare of group over individual members
-Somewhat more common in Asian and Hispanic cultures
Hindsight bias - ansThe tendency to believe that you could have predicted some outcome that
you've learned about—when in fact you couldn't have predicted it accurately
Hypothesis - ansA prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances
-A specific prediction that derives from the theory
Theory - ansA set of related propositions intended to describe some phenomenon or aspect of
the world
Observational research - ansParticipant observation which involves observing some
phenomenon at close range
Archival research - ansLooking at evidence found in archives of various kinds, including
census reports, police records, sports statistics, newspaper articles, and databases containing
ethnographic descriptions of people in various cultures
Surveys - ansThe most common type of study
-Can be conducted using either interviews or written questionnaires
-Participants can be a small collections of students or a large sample of the national
population
Correlational research - ansResearch that involves measuring two or more variables, and
assessing whether or not there is a relationship between them
Experimental research - ansIn social psychology, research that randomly assigns people to
different conditions, or situations, and that enables researchers to make strong inferences
about why a relationship exists or how different situations affect behavior
Third variable - ansA variable, often unmeasured in correlational research, that can be the
true explanation for the relationship between two other variables
Self-selection - ansIn correlational research, the situation in which the participant, rather than
the researcher, determines the participant's level of each variable (for example, whether they
are married or not, or how many hours per day they spend playing video games), thereby
creating the problem that it could be these unknown other properties that are responsible for
the observed relationship.
,Navigating the Mind: Your Ultimate Guide to Mastering the PSYC
140 Final Exam
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide Latest Updated 2025/2026.
Longitudinal study - ansA study conducted over a long period of time with the same
participants
Independent variable - ansThis is the variable that is manipulated. It is hypothesized to be the
cause of a particular outcome
Dependent variable - ansThis is the variable that is measured. It is hypothesized to be affected
by manipulation of the independent variable
Random assignment - ansAssigning participants in experimental research to different
conditions randomly, so they are as likely to be assigned to one condition as the other. It
guarantees that, on average, except for the manipulation, there should no systematic
differences across groups
Control condition - ansA condition comparable to the experimental condition in every way,
except it lacks the one ingredient hypothesized to produce the expected effect on the
dependent variable.
Natural experiment - ansA natural occurring event of phenomenon having somewhat
different conditions that can be compared with almost as much rigor as in experiments where
the investigator manipulates the conditions
External validity - ansHow well the results of a study generalize to contexts outside the
conditions of the laboratory
-When researchers are unable to generalize the results to real-life situations, there is poor
external validity
Field experiment - ansAn experiment conducted in the real world (not a lab), usually with
participants who are not aware they are in a study of any kind
Internal validity - ansIn experimental research, confidence that only the manipulated variable
could have produced the results
-The likelihood that the manipulated variable, and no other external influence, could have
produced the results.
Reliability - ansRefers to the degree to which a measure gives consistent results on repeated
occasions or the degree to which two measuring instruments (such as human observers) yield
the same or very similar results
Measurement validity - ansThe correlation between a measure and some outcome the
measure is supposed to predict
Statistical significance - anshow likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
-It is determined by
1. the size of the difference between groups in an experiment or the size of a relationship
between variables in a correlational study
2. The number of cases on which the finding is based
Selection bias - ansAssignment to conditions is not random but systematic, and it may be the
reason for the observed difference, and not the manipulated variable
Differential attrition - ansIf many people drop out from one condition than another, the
people who stay in the more taxing or upsetting condition are likely to be different than those
who left
Regression to the mean - ansIf people are in a study because they're extreme on the variable
of interest, they are likely to become less extreme even if nothing is done, making the
'treatment' seem effective
Experimenter/rater bias - ansIf the dependent measure has an element of subjectivity and the
rater knows the hypothesis or the condition assignments, the rater may make biased
judgments
, Navigating the Mind: Your Ultimate Guide to Mastering the PSYC
140 Final Exam
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide Latest Updated 2025/2026.
Expectancy/Hawthorne effects - ansParticipants can be biased by their expectations about the
purpose of the experiment and act in a way that confirms them
Replication - ansReproduction of research results by the original investigator or someone
else.
If a result is genuine or valid, it should be possible for scientists to replicate it
Open science - ansPractices such as sharing data and research materials with anyone in the
broader scientific community in an effort to increase the integrity and replicability of
scientific research
Institutional review board (IRB) - ansA committee that examines research proposals and
makes judgments about the ethical appropriateness of the research
Informed consent - ansA person's signed agreement to participate in a procedure or research
study after learning all of its relevant aspects
Deception research - ansResearch in which the participants are misled about the purpose of
the research or the meaning of something that is done to them
Basic science - ansScience or research concerned with trying to understand some
phenomenon in its own right, with a view towards using that understanding to build valid
theories about the nature of some aspect of the world
Applied science - ansScience or research concerned with solving important real-world
problems
Interventions - ansAn effort to chance a person's behavior
-Basic research can give rise to theories that can lead to this
Self-schemas - ansA cognitive structure, derived from past experiences that represents a
person's beliefs and feelings about the self, both in general and in specific situations
-They have us navigate, and make sense of, all the information that bombards us every day
Reflected self-appraisals - ansA belief about what others think of one's self
-We see ourselves partly through the eyes of those around us
-We gain self-knowledge through reflected self-appraisals might seem (suggesting that we
have little say in how we see ourselves)
-We internalize how we THINK other's perceive us, not how they actually see us
"looking-glass self" - ansThe idea that other people's reactions to us - their approval or
disapproval - serves as a mirror of sorts
Working self-concept - ansA subset of self-knowledge that is brought to mind in a particular
concept
The idea that only a subset of a person's vast pool of self-knowledge is brought to mind in
any context (usually the one that is most relevant or appropriate)
Social comparison theory - ansThe idea that people compare themselves to other people to
obtain an accurate assessment of their opinions, abilities, and internal states
-When people have no objective standard by which to evaluate their traits or abilities, they do
so largely by comparing themselves with others
Self-esteem - ansThe overall positive or negative evaluation people have of themselves
The global or overall evaluation that one has of oneself (whether it be positive or negative)
-It generally stays fairly consistent over time.
Contingencies of self-worth - ansA perspective maintaining that people's self-esteem is
contingent on the successes and failures in domains on which they have based their self-
worth
-Self-esteem has many sources. When some sources take a hit, certain ones will affect your
self-esteem more than others, depending on how much you care about them.
140 Final Exam
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide Latest Updated 2025/2026.
Dispositions - ansInternal factors, such as beliefs, values, personality traits, and abilities, that
guide a person's behaviors
Schemas - ansA knowledge structure consisting of any organized body of stored information
that is used to help in understanding events.
Natural selection - ansAn evolutionary process that molds animals and plants so that traits
that enhance the probability of survival and reproduction are passed on to subsequent
generations.
Parental investment - ansThe evolutionary principle that costs and benefits are associated
with reproduction and the nurturing of offspring. Because these costs and benefits are
different for males and females, one gender will normally value and invest more in each child
than will the other.
Naturalistic fallacy - ansThe claim that the way things are is the way they should be.
Independent (individualistic) culture - ansA culture in which people tend to think of
themselves as distinct social entities, tied to each other by voluntary bonds of affection and
organizational memberships but essentially separate from other people and having attributes
that exist in the absence of any connection to others.
Interdependent (collectivistic) culture - ansA culture in which people tend to think of
themselves as part of a collective, inextricably tied to others in their group and placing less
importance on individual freedom or personal control over their lives.
-Emphasizes interdependent, cooperation, welfare of group over individual members
-Somewhat more common in Asian and Hispanic cultures
Hindsight bias - ansThe tendency to believe that you could have predicted some outcome that
you've learned about—when in fact you couldn't have predicted it accurately
Hypothesis - ansA prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances
-A specific prediction that derives from the theory
Theory - ansA set of related propositions intended to describe some phenomenon or aspect of
the world
Observational research - ansParticipant observation which involves observing some
phenomenon at close range
Archival research - ansLooking at evidence found in archives of various kinds, including
census reports, police records, sports statistics, newspaper articles, and databases containing
ethnographic descriptions of people in various cultures
Surveys - ansThe most common type of study
-Can be conducted using either interviews or written questionnaires
-Participants can be a small collections of students or a large sample of the national
population
Correlational research - ansResearch that involves measuring two or more variables, and
assessing whether or not there is a relationship between them
Experimental research - ansIn social psychology, research that randomly assigns people to
different conditions, or situations, and that enables researchers to make strong inferences
about why a relationship exists or how different situations affect behavior
Third variable - ansA variable, often unmeasured in correlational research, that can be the
true explanation for the relationship between two other variables
Self-selection - ansIn correlational research, the situation in which the participant, rather than
the researcher, determines the participant's level of each variable (for example, whether they
are married or not, or how many hours per day they spend playing video games), thereby
creating the problem that it could be these unknown other properties that are responsible for
the observed relationship.
,Navigating the Mind: Your Ultimate Guide to Mastering the PSYC
140 Final Exam
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide Latest Updated 2025/2026.
Longitudinal study - ansA study conducted over a long period of time with the same
participants
Independent variable - ansThis is the variable that is manipulated. It is hypothesized to be the
cause of a particular outcome
Dependent variable - ansThis is the variable that is measured. It is hypothesized to be affected
by manipulation of the independent variable
Random assignment - ansAssigning participants in experimental research to different
conditions randomly, so they are as likely to be assigned to one condition as the other. It
guarantees that, on average, except for the manipulation, there should no systematic
differences across groups
Control condition - ansA condition comparable to the experimental condition in every way,
except it lacks the one ingredient hypothesized to produce the expected effect on the
dependent variable.
Natural experiment - ansA natural occurring event of phenomenon having somewhat
different conditions that can be compared with almost as much rigor as in experiments where
the investigator manipulates the conditions
External validity - ansHow well the results of a study generalize to contexts outside the
conditions of the laboratory
-When researchers are unable to generalize the results to real-life situations, there is poor
external validity
Field experiment - ansAn experiment conducted in the real world (not a lab), usually with
participants who are not aware they are in a study of any kind
Internal validity - ansIn experimental research, confidence that only the manipulated variable
could have produced the results
-The likelihood that the manipulated variable, and no other external influence, could have
produced the results.
Reliability - ansRefers to the degree to which a measure gives consistent results on repeated
occasions or the degree to which two measuring instruments (such as human observers) yield
the same or very similar results
Measurement validity - ansThe correlation between a measure and some outcome the
measure is supposed to predict
Statistical significance - anshow likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
-It is determined by
1. the size of the difference between groups in an experiment or the size of a relationship
between variables in a correlational study
2. The number of cases on which the finding is based
Selection bias - ansAssignment to conditions is not random but systematic, and it may be the
reason for the observed difference, and not the manipulated variable
Differential attrition - ansIf many people drop out from one condition than another, the
people who stay in the more taxing or upsetting condition are likely to be different than those
who left
Regression to the mean - ansIf people are in a study because they're extreme on the variable
of interest, they are likely to become less extreme even if nothing is done, making the
'treatment' seem effective
Experimenter/rater bias - ansIf the dependent measure has an element of subjectivity and the
rater knows the hypothesis or the condition assignments, the rater may make biased
judgments
, Navigating the Mind: Your Ultimate Guide to Mastering the PSYC
140 Final Exam
A Comprehensive Exam Study Guide Latest Updated 2025/2026.
Expectancy/Hawthorne effects - ansParticipants can be biased by their expectations about the
purpose of the experiment and act in a way that confirms them
Replication - ansReproduction of research results by the original investigator or someone
else.
If a result is genuine or valid, it should be possible for scientists to replicate it
Open science - ansPractices such as sharing data and research materials with anyone in the
broader scientific community in an effort to increase the integrity and replicability of
scientific research
Institutional review board (IRB) - ansA committee that examines research proposals and
makes judgments about the ethical appropriateness of the research
Informed consent - ansA person's signed agreement to participate in a procedure or research
study after learning all of its relevant aspects
Deception research - ansResearch in which the participants are misled about the purpose of
the research or the meaning of something that is done to them
Basic science - ansScience or research concerned with trying to understand some
phenomenon in its own right, with a view towards using that understanding to build valid
theories about the nature of some aspect of the world
Applied science - ansScience or research concerned with solving important real-world
problems
Interventions - ansAn effort to chance a person's behavior
-Basic research can give rise to theories that can lead to this
Self-schemas - ansA cognitive structure, derived from past experiences that represents a
person's beliefs and feelings about the self, both in general and in specific situations
-They have us navigate, and make sense of, all the information that bombards us every day
Reflected self-appraisals - ansA belief about what others think of one's self
-We see ourselves partly through the eyes of those around us
-We gain self-knowledge through reflected self-appraisals might seem (suggesting that we
have little say in how we see ourselves)
-We internalize how we THINK other's perceive us, not how they actually see us
"looking-glass self" - ansThe idea that other people's reactions to us - their approval or
disapproval - serves as a mirror of sorts
Working self-concept - ansA subset of self-knowledge that is brought to mind in a particular
concept
The idea that only a subset of a person's vast pool of self-knowledge is brought to mind in
any context (usually the one that is most relevant or appropriate)
Social comparison theory - ansThe idea that people compare themselves to other people to
obtain an accurate assessment of their opinions, abilities, and internal states
-When people have no objective standard by which to evaluate their traits or abilities, they do
so largely by comparing themselves with others
Self-esteem - ansThe overall positive or negative evaluation people have of themselves
The global or overall evaluation that one has of oneself (whether it be positive or negative)
-It generally stays fairly consistent over time.
Contingencies of self-worth - ansA perspective maintaining that people's self-esteem is
contingent on the successes and failures in domains on which they have based their self-
worth
-Self-esteem has many sources. When some sources take a hit, certain ones will affect your
self-esteem more than others, depending on how much you care about them.
