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Solutions Manual
for
Foundations of Earth Science, 15e
By Frederick Lutgens, Edward Tarbuck, Dennis Tasa
N
U
R
SE
D
O
C
S
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1. MATTER AND MINERALS
INTRODUCTION
Matter and Minerals presents the fundamental characteristics of earth materials. The chapter
begins with minerals and how they are defined, then delves deeper to review the building blocks of
minerals: atoms and atomic particles. From there, the main types of ionic bonding are presented.
The final section in the chapter steps back to look at mineral properties, how minerals are
identified, and the main mineral groups.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
N
1.1 MINERALS: BUILDING BLOCKS OF ROCKS
a. Defining a Mineral
U
i. Naturally occurring
ii. Generally inorganic
iii. Solid substance
R
iv. Orderly crystalline structure
v. Definite chemical composition
b. What Is a Rock?
SE
i. Solid mass of mineral
ii. Solid mass of mineral-like matter
1.2 ATOMS: BUILDING BLOCKS OF MINERALS
a. Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
i. Protons and neutrons are very dense particles with almost identical masses
D
ii. Electrons have a negligible mass, about 1/2000 that of a proton
iii. Protons have an electrical charge of +1, and electrons have an electrical charge
of −1
O
iv. Atomic structure: nucleus , principle shells, and valence shells
b. Elements: Defined by Their Number of Protons
i. Atomic number: the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
C
ii. Periodic table: organization of elements
iii. Chemical compound: the chemical combination of two or more elements
S
1.3 WHY ATOMS BOND
a. The Octet Rule and Chemical Bonds
i. Valence electrons are generally involved in chemical bonding
ii. Octet rule: Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until surrounded by eight
valence electrons
iii. A chemical bond is a transfer or sharing of electrons that allows each atom a full
valence shell of electrons
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iv. There are three types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and metallic
v. The properties of a chemical compound are dramatically different from the
properties of the various elements constituting it
b. Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred
i. One atom gives up one or more valence electron to another atom to form ions
ii. Ions: positively and negatively charged atoms
c. Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing
i. Covalent bonds form by the sharing of one or more valence electrons between a
pair of atoms
ii. Attraction of oppositely charged ions
d. Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move
N
i. The valence electrons are free to move from one atom to another so that all
atoms share the available valence electrons
ii. Metallic bonds produce the high electrical conductivity found in metals
U
1.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
a. Optical Properties
i. Luster: the appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a
R
mineralColor
ii. Streak: the color of a mineral in powdered form
b. Ability to transmit light: opaque or transparentCrystal Shape or Habit: the common or
SE
characteristic shape of individual crystals or aggregates of crystals
i. Equant (equidimensional)
ii. Bladed
iii. Fibrous
iv. Tabular
D
v. Prismatic
vi. Platy
vii. Blocky
viii. Cubic
O
ix. Banded
c. Mineral Strength: how easily minerals break or deform under stress
i. Hardness: resistance to scratching (Mohs scale)
C
ii. Cleavage: tendency to break along planes of weak bonding
iii. Fracture: chemical bonds of equal strength in all directions
d. Tenacity: toughnessDensity and Specific Gravity
S
e. Other Properties of Minerals
i. Taste
ii. Feel
iii. Smell
iv. High iron content
v. Double refraction
vi. Reaction to dilute hydrochloric acid
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1.5 MINERAL GROUPS
a. Rock-Forming Minerals: minerals that collectively make of most of the rocks of Earth’s
crust
b. Economic Minerals: minerals that are used extensively in the manufacture of products
c. Silicate Minerals: contain oxygen and silicon atoms
i. Fundamental structure is the silicon–oxygen tetrahedron
ii. Common light silicate minerals include feldspars, quartz, muscovite, and clay
minerals
iii. Common dark silicate minerals include pyroxenes, amphiboles, olivine, biotite,
and garnet
d. Important Nonsilicate Minerals
N
i. Carbonates
ii. Halides
iii. Oxides
iv. Sulfides
U
v. SulfatesNative elements
vi. Other nonsilicate minerals
R
LEARNING OBJECTIVES/FOCUS ON CONCEPTS
Each statement represents the primary learning objective for the corresponding major heading
SE
within the chapter. After completing the chapter, students should be able to:
1.1 : List the main characteristics that an Earth material must possess to be considered a mineral
and describe each characteristic.
1.2 : Compare and contrast the three primary particles contained in atoms.
1.3 : Distinguish among ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds.
D
1.4 : List and describe the properties used in mineral identification.
1.5 : List the common silicate and nonsilicate minerals and describe what characterizes each group.
O
TEACHING STRATEGIES
During lecture for this material, which is really heavy on terminology of mineral characteristics
C
and groups, samples should be provided to the class in as many ways possible.
o Actual mineral samples as compared with photos of ideal mineral samples, perhaps
S
examples passed around the classroom as well as shown on a document camera where
features can be pointed out.
o Minerals should be shown on their own as crystals and in rock form. Often, students are
confused about the difference between rocks and minerals; they need to be provided with
examples first where minerals inside the rock can be seen clearly (e.g., a pegmatite), then
with examples where only mineral faces can be identified but students can still see how the
rock is composed of individual crystals (e.g., marble). Later, students should see these same
sdfghjk
Solutions Manual
for
Foundations of Earth Science, 15e
By Frederick Lutgens, Edward Tarbuck, Dennis Tasa
N
U
R
SE
D
O
C
S
sdfghjkl
, ertyuiop
1. MATTER AND MINERALS
INTRODUCTION
Matter and Minerals presents the fundamental characteristics of earth materials. The chapter
begins with minerals and how they are defined, then delves deeper to review the building blocks of
minerals: atoms and atomic particles. From there, the main types of ionic bonding are presented.
The final section in the chapter steps back to look at mineral properties, how minerals are
identified, and the main mineral groups.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
N
1.1 MINERALS: BUILDING BLOCKS OF ROCKS
a. Defining a Mineral
U
i. Naturally occurring
ii. Generally inorganic
iii. Solid substance
R
iv. Orderly crystalline structure
v. Definite chemical composition
b. What Is a Rock?
SE
i. Solid mass of mineral
ii. Solid mass of mineral-like matter
1.2 ATOMS: BUILDING BLOCKS OF MINERALS
a. Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
i. Protons and neutrons are very dense particles with almost identical masses
D
ii. Electrons have a negligible mass, about 1/2000 that of a proton
iii. Protons have an electrical charge of +1, and electrons have an electrical charge
of −1
O
iv. Atomic structure: nucleus , principle shells, and valence shells
b. Elements: Defined by Their Number of Protons
i. Atomic number: the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
C
ii. Periodic table: organization of elements
iii. Chemical compound: the chemical combination of two or more elements
S
1.3 WHY ATOMS BOND
a. The Octet Rule and Chemical Bonds
i. Valence electrons are generally involved in chemical bonding
ii. Octet rule: Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until surrounded by eight
valence electrons
iii. A chemical bond is a transfer or sharing of electrons that allows each atom a full
valence shell of electrons
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, ertyuiop
iv. There are three types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and metallic
v. The properties of a chemical compound are dramatically different from the
properties of the various elements constituting it
b. Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred
i. One atom gives up one or more valence electron to another atom to form ions
ii. Ions: positively and negatively charged atoms
c. Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing
i. Covalent bonds form by the sharing of one or more valence electrons between a
pair of atoms
ii. Attraction of oppositely charged ions
d. Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move
N
i. The valence electrons are free to move from one atom to another so that all
atoms share the available valence electrons
ii. Metallic bonds produce the high electrical conductivity found in metals
U
1.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
a. Optical Properties
i. Luster: the appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a
R
mineralColor
ii. Streak: the color of a mineral in powdered form
b. Ability to transmit light: opaque or transparentCrystal Shape or Habit: the common or
SE
characteristic shape of individual crystals or aggregates of crystals
i. Equant (equidimensional)
ii. Bladed
iii. Fibrous
iv. Tabular
D
v. Prismatic
vi. Platy
vii. Blocky
viii. Cubic
O
ix. Banded
c. Mineral Strength: how easily minerals break or deform under stress
i. Hardness: resistance to scratching (Mohs scale)
C
ii. Cleavage: tendency to break along planes of weak bonding
iii. Fracture: chemical bonds of equal strength in all directions
d. Tenacity: toughnessDensity and Specific Gravity
S
e. Other Properties of Minerals
i. Taste
ii. Feel
iii. Smell
iv. High iron content
v. Double refraction
vi. Reaction to dilute hydrochloric acid
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1.5 MINERAL GROUPS
a. Rock-Forming Minerals: minerals that collectively make of most of the rocks of Earth’s
crust
b. Economic Minerals: minerals that are used extensively in the manufacture of products
c. Silicate Minerals: contain oxygen and silicon atoms
i. Fundamental structure is the silicon–oxygen tetrahedron
ii. Common light silicate minerals include feldspars, quartz, muscovite, and clay
minerals
iii. Common dark silicate minerals include pyroxenes, amphiboles, olivine, biotite,
and garnet
d. Important Nonsilicate Minerals
N
i. Carbonates
ii. Halides
iii. Oxides
iv. Sulfides
U
v. SulfatesNative elements
vi. Other nonsilicate minerals
R
LEARNING OBJECTIVES/FOCUS ON CONCEPTS
Each statement represents the primary learning objective for the corresponding major heading
SE
within the chapter. After completing the chapter, students should be able to:
1.1 : List the main characteristics that an Earth material must possess to be considered a mineral
and describe each characteristic.
1.2 : Compare and contrast the three primary particles contained in atoms.
1.3 : Distinguish among ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds.
D
1.4 : List and describe the properties used in mineral identification.
1.5 : List the common silicate and nonsilicate minerals and describe what characterizes each group.
O
TEACHING STRATEGIES
During lecture for this material, which is really heavy on terminology of mineral characteristics
C
and groups, samples should be provided to the class in as many ways possible.
o Actual mineral samples as compared with photos of ideal mineral samples, perhaps
S
examples passed around the classroom as well as shown on a document camera where
features can be pointed out.
o Minerals should be shown on their own as crystals and in rock form. Often, students are
confused about the difference between rocks and minerals; they need to be provided with
examples first where minerals inside the rock can be seen clearly (e.g., a pegmatite), then
with examples where only mineral faces can be identified but students can still see how the
rock is composed of individual crystals (e.g., marble). Later, students should see these same
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