Families and Households
1. Theories of the Family
Functionalism (Murdock, Parsons)
→ believe that society is based on value consensus. Society made up of different parts
which depend on each other (family, education system, economy) - compare society to a
biological organism like the human body
→ Functions of the family (murdock): sexual, reproductive, economic, educational
- Criticisms = can be performed by non-nuclear family members, neglects conflict and
exploitation
→ Parsons:
- primary socialisation of children = equip them with basic skills and society’s values to
enable them to cooperate with others and begin to integrate them into society
- Stabilisation of adult personalities = family is a place where adults can relax and
release tensions, enabling them to return to workplace refreshed and ready to meet
its demands “warm bath theory”
Marxism (Engels, Zaretsky)
→ Family as a unit of consumption = the family fuels capitalism as it generates profits for the
bourgeoisie because it encourages families to buy goods and services
→ Engles - Inheritance of property = where the ruling class ensures that wealth stays within
the family through private inheritance
Feminism (Liberal, Marxist, Radical, Difference)
→ Liberal = women’s oppression is being gradually overcome through changing people’s
attitudes and through changes in the law. Moving towards greater equality but depends on
further reforms and changes in the attitudes and socialisation of both sexes
- Studies have shown that men are going more domestic labour, while the way parents
now socialise their sons and daughters is more equal - march of progress view
→ Marxist = main cause of women’s oppression is not men, but capitalism.
- Reproduce the labour force (unpaid domestic labour and socialise next
generation), women absorb anger (fran ansley says wives are ‘takers of shit’ who
soak up frustration their husbands feel cause of the alienation and exploitation from
work), a reserve army of cheap labour (can be taken on when extra workers are
needed, when not needed can ‘let them go’ to return to primary role as unpaid DL)
→ Radical = society was founded on patriarchy (ruled by men). Men are the source of
women’s oppression and exploitation (the enemy) and men benefit from women’s unpaid
domestic labour and from their sexual services, and dominate women through D&S violence
(heterosexual relations are oppressive because they involve ‘sleeping with the enemy’)
→ Difference = cannot generalise about women’s experiences. Argue that lesbian and
heterosexual women, white & black women, M/C & W/C women have very different
experiences of family from one another
= The dual burden refers to women doing both paid work and the majority of domestic
labour, while the triple shift adds a third element: emotional work—caring for the emotional
needs of family members. Duncombe and Marsden found that many women felt emotionally
neglected in their relationships, while Hochschild highlighted how women often manage
household feelings and tensions on top of paid and domestic work.
,Postmodernism (Stacey, Giddens, Beck):
Postmodernists argue that society is now characterised by choice and diversity. Stacey
found that women are creating new, flexible family structures like the "divorce-extended
family."
→ Giddens introduced the idea of the "pure relationship"—based on intimacy and
satisfaction rather than duty or tradition.
→ Beck described the individualisation thesis, where people are freed from traditional roles
but must now construct their own life paths, including family. Beck also argues that modern
families are "negotiated" rather than fixed—they’re based on agreement between individuals,
making them more equal but also less stable.
Personal Life Perspective (Carol Smart):
Smart criticises structural theories for ignoring personal meanings. This perspective focuses
on how individuals define family through memory, personal narratives, and chosen
relationships (e.g., friends, pets, fictive kin), rather than just blood or marriage ties.
2. Family Diversity
NUCLEAR - favoured by functionalists as other family types can be seen as dysfunctional,
abnormal or deviant. Parsons argues there is a ‘functional fit’ between nuclear family and
modern society (meets the needs for a geographically and socially mobile workforce)
Extended family: Includes relatives beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts, and uncles. Can be vertically
extended (e.g., grandparents living with parents and children) or horizontally extended (e.g., siblings and their families living
together).
Reconstituted family: Also known as a stepfamily—formed when one or both partners in a relationship have children from
previous relationships. Increasing due to high divorce and remarriage rates.
Lone-parent family: Consists of one parent raising children alone. More likely to be headed by women and often linked to
divorce, separation, or choice (e.g., single mothers by choice).
Same-sex family: Families headed by a homosexual couple, either male or female, with or without children (biological or
adopted). More visible and accepted following legal and social changes like same-sex marriage laws.
Beanpole family: A multi-generational family with few children and longer life expectancy, resulting in a "tall and thin"
structure—more vertical ties (e.g., grandparents, parents, children), but fewer horizontal ones (e.g., cousins, siblings).
Rapoports: we have moved away from traditional NF to a range of family types - reflecting
greater freedom of choice and acceptance of different cultures. 5 types =
- Organisational diversity = differences in ways family roles are organised (e.g. joint
conjugal or segregated roles)
- Cultural diversity = different cultural, religious and ethnic groups have different family
structures
- Social class diversity = partly the result of income differences between households of
different social classes
- Life stage diversity = differ according to the stage reached in life cycle (e.g.
newlyweds and retired couples with children)
- Generational diversity = older and younger generations have different attitudes and
experiences that reflect the historical periods in which they have lived
New Right - traditional or patriarchal nuclear families are the only correct family type. Family
is seen as ‘natural’. They argue that the decline of traditional nuclear family and growth of
family diversity are cause of many social problems e.g. lone mothers can't discipline their
children properly, left without male role models, burden on welfare state and taxpayers
, - Benson argues that couples are more stable when married because requires
deliberate commitment and responsibility - return to ‘traditional values’ can prevent
social disintegration and damage to children
Postmodernism - Postmodernism argues that contemporary society is fragmented, diverse,
and driven by individual choice. Traditional family structures (like the nuclear family) are no
longer dominant; there is no single "correct" family type.
Judith Stacey - Found that postmodern society has led to diverse and fluid family
structures. Women, in particular, are creating new arrangements that better suit their needs
e.g., "divorce-extended families", where ex-in-laws and ex-spouses still support each other.
So, families are now based on what works for individuals, not rigid norms.
Anthony Giddens - Introduced the idea of the "pure relationship" a relationship based on
love, emotional intimacy, and individual satisfaction, not social obligation. In late modern
society, people seek relationships that meet their personal needs and will leave them if they
no longer do.Same-sex couples are pioneers of these new relationship forms because they
aren’t bound by tradition.
Ulrich Beck - Developed the individualisation thesis: people are disembedded from
traditional roles and expectations (gender roles or religion) and are free to "choose" their
own life paths, including family. Coined the term "negotiated family" families today are
formed and maintained through constant discussion and agreement, rather than tradition or
duty.
Feminist - Ann Oakley believes the new right view of family is a negative reaction against
the feminist campaign for gender equality. Conventional NF based on patriarchal oppression
of women andis a fundamental cause of gender inequality
Secularisation - Refers to the decline in religious influence over society. traditional family
structures (e.g. nuclear family, lifelong marriage) were often reinforced by religious
teachings. As religion loses influence, marriage is no longer seen as sacred, and divorce,
cohabitation, and same-sex families become more socially acceptable. Example: Fewer
people now marry in churches or view marriage as a religious duty.
Individualism - Modern society places greater emphasis on personal freedom,
self-expression, and autonomy. People are more likely to make life choices based on what
makes them happy, rather than conforming to societal or familial expectations. Leads to a
rise in cohabitation, divorce, lone-parent families, and “pure relationships” (Giddens), where
individuals stay together only while the relationship is fulfilling. The individualisation thesis
(Beck) supports this, suggesting people now construct their own life courses rather than
follow fixed norms.
3. Changing Patterns of Family
Marriage:
→ decrease: Fewer people are marrying, and when they do, it tends to be later in life.
Reasons: secularisation, individualism, changing gender roles, and fear of divorce. Allan &
Crow: Emphasise changing expectations of marriage—people are less likely to enter or
remain in relationships that don’t meet emotional needs.
→ rise in cohabitation: More couples live together without marrying—seen as a normal
step or even a substitute for marriage. Bejin (1985): Young people see cohabitation as more
equal and less patriarchal than traditional marriage—especially among those who reject
conventional norms.
1. Theories of the Family
Functionalism (Murdock, Parsons)
→ believe that society is based on value consensus. Society made up of different parts
which depend on each other (family, education system, economy) - compare society to a
biological organism like the human body
→ Functions of the family (murdock): sexual, reproductive, economic, educational
- Criticisms = can be performed by non-nuclear family members, neglects conflict and
exploitation
→ Parsons:
- primary socialisation of children = equip them with basic skills and society’s values to
enable them to cooperate with others and begin to integrate them into society
- Stabilisation of adult personalities = family is a place where adults can relax and
release tensions, enabling them to return to workplace refreshed and ready to meet
its demands “warm bath theory”
Marxism (Engels, Zaretsky)
→ Family as a unit of consumption = the family fuels capitalism as it generates profits for the
bourgeoisie because it encourages families to buy goods and services
→ Engles - Inheritance of property = where the ruling class ensures that wealth stays within
the family through private inheritance
Feminism (Liberal, Marxist, Radical, Difference)
→ Liberal = women’s oppression is being gradually overcome through changing people’s
attitudes and through changes in the law. Moving towards greater equality but depends on
further reforms and changes in the attitudes and socialisation of both sexes
- Studies have shown that men are going more domestic labour, while the way parents
now socialise their sons and daughters is more equal - march of progress view
→ Marxist = main cause of women’s oppression is not men, but capitalism.
- Reproduce the labour force (unpaid domestic labour and socialise next
generation), women absorb anger (fran ansley says wives are ‘takers of shit’ who
soak up frustration their husbands feel cause of the alienation and exploitation from
work), a reserve army of cheap labour (can be taken on when extra workers are
needed, when not needed can ‘let them go’ to return to primary role as unpaid DL)
→ Radical = society was founded on patriarchy (ruled by men). Men are the source of
women’s oppression and exploitation (the enemy) and men benefit from women’s unpaid
domestic labour and from their sexual services, and dominate women through D&S violence
(heterosexual relations are oppressive because they involve ‘sleeping with the enemy’)
→ Difference = cannot generalise about women’s experiences. Argue that lesbian and
heterosexual women, white & black women, M/C & W/C women have very different
experiences of family from one another
= The dual burden refers to women doing both paid work and the majority of domestic
labour, while the triple shift adds a third element: emotional work—caring for the emotional
needs of family members. Duncombe and Marsden found that many women felt emotionally
neglected in their relationships, while Hochschild highlighted how women often manage
household feelings and tensions on top of paid and domestic work.
,Postmodernism (Stacey, Giddens, Beck):
Postmodernists argue that society is now characterised by choice and diversity. Stacey
found that women are creating new, flexible family structures like the "divorce-extended
family."
→ Giddens introduced the idea of the "pure relationship"—based on intimacy and
satisfaction rather than duty or tradition.
→ Beck described the individualisation thesis, where people are freed from traditional roles
but must now construct their own life paths, including family. Beck also argues that modern
families are "negotiated" rather than fixed—they’re based on agreement between individuals,
making them more equal but also less stable.
Personal Life Perspective (Carol Smart):
Smart criticises structural theories for ignoring personal meanings. This perspective focuses
on how individuals define family through memory, personal narratives, and chosen
relationships (e.g., friends, pets, fictive kin), rather than just blood or marriage ties.
2. Family Diversity
NUCLEAR - favoured by functionalists as other family types can be seen as dysfunctional,
abnormal or deviant. Parsons argues there is a ‘functional fit’ between nuclear family and
modern society (meets the needs for a geographically and socially mobile workforce)
Extended family: Includes relatives beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts, and uncles. Can be vertically
extended (e.g., grandparents living with parents and children) or horizontally extended (e.g., siblings and their families living
together).
Reconstituted family: Also known as a stepfamily—formed when one or both partners in a relationship have children from
previous relationships. Increasing due to high divorce and remarriage rates.
Lone-parent family: Consists of one parent raising children alone. More likely to be headed by women and often linked to
divorce, separation, or choice (e.g., single mothers by choice).
Same-sex family: Families headed by a homosexual couple, either male or female, with or without children (biological or
adopted). More visible and accepted following legal and social changes like same-sex marriage laws.
Beanpole family: A multi-generational family with few children and longer life expectancy, resulting in a "tall and thin"
structure—more vertical ties (e.g., grandparents, parents, children), but fewer horizontal ones (e.g., cousins, siblings).
Rapoports: we have moved away from traditional NF to a range of family types - reflecting
greater freedom of choice and acceptance of different cultures. 5 types =
- Organisational diversity = differences in ways family roles are organised (e.g. joint
conjugal or segregated roles)
- Cultural diversity = different cultural, religious and ethnic groups have different family
structures
- Social class diversity = partly the result of income differences between households of
different social classes
- Life stage diversity = differ according to the stage reached in life cycle (e.g.
newlyweds and retired couples with children)
- Generational diversity = older and younger generations have different attitudes and
experiences that reflect the historical periods in which they have lived
New Right - traditional or patriarchal nuclear families are the only correct family type. Family
is seen as ‘natural’. They argue that the decline of traditional nuclear family and growth of
family diversity are cause of many social problems e.g. lone mothers can't discipline their
children properly, left without male role models, burden on welfare state and taxpayers
, - Benson argues that couples are more stable when married because requires
deliberate commitment and responsibility - return to ‘traditional values’ can prevent
social disintegration and damage to children
Postmodernism - Postmodernism argues that contemporary society is fragmented, diverse,
and driven by individual choice. Traditional family structures (like the nuclear family) are no
longer dominant; there is no single "correct" family type.
Judith Stacey - Found that postmodern society has led to diverse and fluid family
structures. Women, in particular, are creating new arrangements that better suit their needs
e.g., "divorce-extended families", where ex-in-laws and ex-spouses still support each other.
So, families are now based on what works for individuals, not rigid norms.
Anthony Giddens - Introduced the idea of the "pure relationship" a relationship based on
love, emotional intimacy, and individual satisfaction, not social obligation. In late modern
society, people seek relationships that meet their personal needs and will leave them if they
no longer do.Same-sex couples are pioneers of these new relationship forms because they
aren’t bound by tradition.
Ulrich Beck - Developed the individualisation thesis: people are disembedded from
traditional roles and expectations (gender roles or religion) and are free to "choose" their
own life paths, including family. Coined the term "negotiated family" families today are
formed and maintained through constant discussion and agreement, rather than tradition or
duty.
Feminist - Ann Oakley believes the new right view of family is a negative reaction against
the feminist campaign for gender equality. Conventional NF based on patriarchal oppression
of women andis a fundamental cause of gender inequality
Secularisation - Refers to the decline in religious influence over society. traditional family
structures (e.g. nuclear family, lifelong marriage) were often reinforced by religious
teachings. As religion loses influence, marriage is no longer seen as sacred, and divorce,
cohabitation, and same-sex families become more socially acceptable. Example: Fewer
people now marry in churches or view marriage as a religious duty.
Individualism - Modern society places greater emphasis on personal freedom,
self-expression, and autonomy. People are more likely to make life choices based on what
makes them happy, rather than conforming to societal or familial expectations. Leads to a
rise in cohabitation, divorce, lone-parent families, and “pure relationships” (Giddens), where
individuals stay together only while the relationship is fulfilling. The individualisation thesis
(Beck) supports this, suggesting people now construct their own life courses rather than
follow fixed norms.
3. Changing Patterns of Family
Marriage:
→ decrease: Fewer people are marrying, and when they do, it tends to be later in life.
Reasons: secularisation, individualism, changing gender roles, and fear of divorce. Allan &
Crow: Emphasise changing expectations of marriage—people are less likely to enter or
remain in relationships that don’t meet emotional needs.
→ rise in cohabitation: More couples live together without marrying—seen as a normal
step or even a substitute for marriage. Bejin (1985): Young people see cohabitation as more
equal and less patriarchal than traditional marriage—especially among those who reject
conventional norms.
