AP® Psychology Exam Prep: Key Concepts & Applications
This study guide covers essential concepts in AP® Psychology, helping you understand and apply them
to various scenarios.
1. Understanding Psychological Perspectives: Arianna's Social Anxiety
Question: Arianna is nervous around large crowds and often leaves social situations such as school
dances and parties because she feels like she might have a panic attack. Her father died when she was a
young girl, but she still often has nightmares about his death. Arianna enjoys school, receives good
grades, and appreciates positive feedback from her teachers. Explain how each of the seven main
theoretical perspectives in psychology would explain Arianna's behavior.
Explanations:
1. Biological Approach: This perspective would attribute Arianna's nervousness to brain
chemistry, hormone imbalances, or genetic predispositions that make her more susceptible to
anxiety in social situations.
o Study Tip: Think "body and brain" when you see the biological approach.
2. Evolutionary Approach: This perspective might explore how avoiding large social crowds
could have been a survival advantage for early humans, potentially reducing exposure to
diseases or conflicts.
o Study Tip: Consider how the behavior might have helped our ancestors survive.
3. Psychodynamic Approach: This approach would delve into Arianna's early childhood
experiences, particularly the loss of her father, and how unresolved unconscious anxieties
related to this event might manifest as social anxiety and nightmares.
o Study Tip: Focus on early experiences and the unconscious mind (Freud!).
4. Behavioral Approach: This perspective would examine Arianna's learning history. She may
have had a negative experience in a large group, leading to a learned association between crowds
and anxiety, causing her to avoid social gatherings.
o Study Tip: Think about learned behaviors through rewards, punishments, and
associations.
5. Cognitive Approach: This approach would focus on how Arianna thinks about and interprets
social situations. Her negative thoughts and perceptions of these situations might trigger her
anxiety and desire to leave.
o Study Tip: "Cognition" = thinking. How does she perceive the situation?
6. Humanistic Approach: This perspective would examine how Arianna's environment might be
hindering her personal growth and self-fulfillment. Her social anxiety could be seen as a
barrier to reaching her full potential and forming meaningful connections.
o Study Tip: Focus on personal growth, self-esteem, and reaching potential.
, 7. Social-Cultural Approach: This perspective would explore how cultural norms and
expectations influence Arianna's comfort level in social situations. If her family or culture
doesn't emphasize or support large social gatherings, this might contribute to her anxiety.
Conversely, strong cultural encouragement to attend might motivate her to try.
o Study Tip: Consider the impact of societal and cultural influences.
2. The Biological Basis of Aging and Neurological Changes: Charlotte's Experience
Question: Charlotte is 88 years old and is feeling the effects of her long life. She suffered a stroke five
years ago, which left the right side of her body limp. She also sometimes has trouble understanding
when she is asked questions. Her doctors believe that she also may be suffering from the beginning
stages of Alzheimer's disease. Explain how each of the following might contribute to Charlotte's current
circumstance: Motor cortex, Acetylcholine, Association areas, Plasticity, Epigenetics.
Explanations:
Motor Cortex: Because Charlotte's right side is limp, the damage from her stroke most likely
occurred in the left hemisphere and potentially in her left motor cortex, which controls
voluntary movements on the opposite side of the body.
o Study Tip: Left brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.
Acetylcholine: If Charlotte suffers from Alzheimer's disease, it is possible that the neurons
responsible for producing acetylcholine have deteriorated. Acetylcholine is a
neurotransmitter crucial for memory and motor function. Its decline is heavily implicated in
Alzheimer's.
o Study Tip: Acetylcholine is key for memory!
Association Areas: If Charlotte's association areas (regions of the cortex involved in higher-
level cognitive functions like interpreting, integrating, and acting on sensory information) have
been damaged by the stroke or Alzheimer's, it may be difficult for her to understand questions
and retrieve memories.
o Study Tip: Association areas link different brain regions for complex processing.
Plasticity: Because of Charlotte's age, her brain will have reduced plasticity, the ability to
reorganize and form new neural connections. If she hasn't recovered motor function in the
months following her stroke, significant further recovery is less likely.
o Study Tip: Brain plasticity is higher in younger individuals.
Epigenetics: Perhaps Charlotte has a genetic predisposition for Alzheimer's disease. If she was
in an environment that was not enriching and cognitively engaging, it may have increased the
likelihood of the gene being expressed. Conversely, an enriching environment might have
delayed or prevented its expression.
o Study Tip: Epigenetics is the interaction between genes and environment.
,3. Sensory Systems in Action: The Ballerina's Performance
Question: While listening to the orchestra as she dances the lead role in Swan Lake, a ballerina
concludes her performance with a pirouette, spinning around several times before leaping into the arms
of her dance partner. Discuss how the ballerina relied on the following to successfully complete her
performance and how each is important to ensuring that success: Kinesthetic sense, Vestibular sense,
Semicircular canals, Hearing.
Explanations:
Kinesthetic Sense: Kinesthesia allows the ballerina to sense the position and movement of
different parts of her body. This awareness is crucial for maintaining posture, knowing where
her limbs are in space, and executing precise movements during the choreography, even when
she has spun around.
o Study Tip: Kinesthesia = body position and movement.
Vestibular Sense: The vestibular sense enables the dancer to sense her body's orientation and
maintain balance. This is vital for staying upright during leaps and spins and for recovering
balance afterward.
o Study Tip: Vestibular = balance and spatial orientation.
Semicircular Canals: The semicircular canals in her inner ear are specifically responsible for
detecting rotational movements. Her extensive training allows her to utilize the information
from these canals to maintain balance during spins and prevent dizziness.
o Study Tip: Semicircular canals detect spinning and rotation.
Hearing: The ballerina's sense of hearing allows her to perceive the music and synchronize
her movements to the correct rhythm and tempo of each piece of music, ensuring her
performance is coordinated and expressive.
o Study Tip: Hearing is essential for timing and musicality in dance.
4. Biological Changes Associated with Various States
Question: Explain the biological changes typically associated with the following: Sleep deprivation,
REM sleep, Tolerance, Opiate use.
Explanations:
Sleep Deprivation: Sleep deprivation is associated with a range of negative biological changes,
including fatigue, irritability, impaired concentration, memory problems, depression,
weight gain, joint pain, a suppressed immune system, and slowed performance with
increased susceptibility to accidents.
o Study Tip: Lack of sleep affects both mental and physical well-being.
, REM Sleep: REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is characterized by rapid brain waves
(similar to an awake state), rapid and irregular breathing, aroused genitals, and relaxed
muscles despite an active motor cortex (leading to dreams).
o Study Tip: REM sleep is when vivid dreaming occurs and the body is essentially
paralyzed.
Tolerance: After repeated use of some drugs, the brain adapts to the drug's chemistry, leading to
tolerance. This means more of the drug is needed to produce the same effect.
o Study Tip: Tolerance means the body gets used to the drug.
Opiate Use: Opiate drugs depress neural functioning, resulting in lessened pain and anxiety.
Biological changes during use include pupil constriction, slower breathing, and lethargy.
Long-term use can lead to the brain losing its ability to produce endorphins, resulting in painful
withdrawal symptoms upon cessation.
o Study Tip: Opiates are depressants that mimic the body's natural painkillers.
5. Modifying Behavior: Stopping Temper Tantrums
Question: Briefly explain how the concepts below could be used to help a child stop throwing temper
tantrums: Extinction (operant conditioning), Positive reinforcement, Modeling, Negative reinforcement,
Shaping, Extinction (classical conditioning).
Explanations:
Extinction (Operant Conditioning): If the child's tantrums are reinforced by attention,
extinction involves removing that reinforcement. By consistently ignoring the tantrums (as
long as the child is not harming themselves), the behavior should eventually decrease.
o Study Tip: No reward = behavior decreases.
Positive Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement involves rewarding desired behaviors. For
example, giving the child praise or a small treat when they express their frustration calmly
instead of having a tantrum can increase those positive behaviors.
o Study Tip: Add something good to increase good behavior.
Modeling: The child can learn to manage frustration by observing and imitating positive
behaviors modeled by parents or other adults. If adults in their life handle disappointment
calmly, the child is more likely to do the same.
o Study Tip: "Monkey see, monkey do" for good behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus to
increase a desired behavior. For example, a child might be placed in "time-out" (the aversive
stimulus) when a tantrum begins. They are allowed to leave time-out (removal of the aversive
stimulus) once they stop crying, thus reinforcing not crying.
o Study Tip: Remove something bad to increase good behavior.
This study guide covers essential concepts in AP® Psychology, helping you understand and apply them
to various scenarios.
1. Understanding Psychological Perspectives: Arianna's Social Anxiety
Question: Arianna is nervous around large crowds and often leaves social situations such as school
dances and parties because she feels like she might have a panic attack. Her father died when she was a
young girl, but she still often has nightmares about his death. Arianna enjoys school, receives good
grades, and appreciates positive feedback from her teachers. Explain how each of the seven main
theoretical perspectives in psychology would explain Arianna's behavior.
Explanations:
1. Biological Approach: This perspective would attribute Arianna's nervousness to brain
chemistry, hormone imbalances, or genetic predispositions that make her more susceptible to
anxiety in social situations.
o Study Tip: Think "body and brain" when you see the biological approach.
2. Evolutionary Approach: This perspective might explore how avoiding large social crowds
could have been a survival advantage for early humans, potentially reducing exposure to
diseases or conflicts.
o Study Tip: Consider how the behavior might have helped our ancestors survive.
3. Psychodynamic Approach: This approach would delve into Arianna's early childhood
experiences, particularly the loss of her father, and how unresolved unconscious anxieties
related to this event might manifest as social anxiety and nightmares.
o Study Tip: Focus on early experiences and the unconscious mind (Freud!).
4. Behavioral Approach: This perspective would examine Arianna's learning history. She may
have had a negative experience in a large group, leading to a learned association between crowds
and anxiety, causing her to avoid social gatherings.
o Study Tip: Think about learned behaviors through rewards, punishments, and
associations.
5. Cognitive Approach: This approach would focus on how Arianna thinks about and interprets
social situations. Her negative thoughts and perceptions of these situations might trigger her
anxiety and desire to leave.
o Study Tip: "Cognition" = thinking. How does she perceive the situation?
6. Humanistic Approach: This perspective would examine how Arianna's environment might be
hindering her personal growth and self-fulfillment. Her social anxiety could be seen as a
barrier to reaching her full potential and forming meaningful connections.
o Study Tip: Focus on personal growth, self-esteem, and reaching potential.
, 7. Social-Cultural Approach: This perspective would explore how cultural norms and
expectations influence Arianna's comfort level in social situations. If her family or culture
doesn't emphasize or support large social gatherings, this might contribute to her anxiety.
Conversely, strong cultural encouragement to attend might motivate her to try.
o Study Tip: Consider the impact of societal and cultural influences.
2. The Biological Basis of Aging and Neurological Changes: Charlotte's Experience
Question: Charlotte is 88 years old and is feeling the effects of her long life. She suffered a stroke five
years ago, which left the right side of her body limp. She also sometimes has trouble understanding
when she is asked questions. Her doctors believe that she also may be suffering from the beginning
stages of Alzheimer's disease. Explain how each of the following might contribute to Charlotte's current
circumstance: Motor cortex, Acetylcholine, Association areas, Plasticity, Epigenetics.
Explanations:
Motor Cortex: Because Charlotte's right side is limp, the damage from her stroke most likely
occurred in the left hemisphere and potentially in her left motor cortex, which controls
voluntary movements on the opposite side of the body.
o Study Tip: Left brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.
Acetylcholine: If Charlotte suffers from Alzheimer's disease, it is possible that the neurons
responsible for producing acetylcholine have deteriorated. Acetylcholine is a
neurotransmitter crucial for memory and motor function. Its decline is heavily implicated in
Alzheimer's.
o Study Tip: Acetylcholine is key for memory!
Association Areas: If Charlotte's association areas (regions of the cortex involved in higher-
level cognitive functions like interpreting, integrating, and acting on sensory information) have
been damaged by the stroke or Alzheimer's, it may be difficult for her to understand questions
and retrieve memories.
o Study Tip: Association areas link different brain regions for complex processing.
Plasticity: Because of Charlotte's age, her brain will have reduced plasticity, the ability to
reorganize and form new neural connections. If she hasn't recovered motor function in the
months following her stroke, significant further recovery is less likely.
o Study Tip: Brain plasticity is higher in younger individuals.
Epigenetics: Perhaps Charlotte has a genetic predisposition for Alzheimer's disease. If she was
in an environment that was not enriching and cognitively engaging, it may have increased the
likelihood of the gene being expressed. Conversely, an enriching environment might have
delayed or prevented its expression.
o Study Tip: Epigenetics is the interaction between genes and environment.
,3. Sensory Systems in Action: The Ballerina's Performance
Question: While listening to the orchestra as she dances the lead role in Swan Lake, a ballerina
concludes her performance with a pirouette, spinning around several times before leaping into the arms
of her dance partner. Discuss how the ballerina relied on the following to successfully complete her
performance and how each is important to ensuring that success: Kinesthetic sense, Vestibular sense,
Semicircular canals, Hearing.
Explanations:
Kinesthetic Sense: Kinesthesia allows the ballerina to sense the position and movement of
different parts of her body. This awareness is crucial for maintaining posture, knowing where
her limbs are in space, and executing precise movements during the choreography, even when
she has spun around.
o Study Tip: Kinesthesia = body position and movement.
Vestibular Sense: The vestibular sense enables the dancer to sense her body's orientation and
maintain balance. This is vital for staying upright during leaps and spins and for recovering
balance afterward.
o Study Tip: Vestibular = balance and spatial orientation.
Semicircular Canals: The semicircular canals in her inner ear are specifically responsible for
detecting rotational movements. Her extensive training allows her to utilize the information
from these canals to maintain balance during spins and prevent dizziness.
o Study Tip: Semicircular canals detect spinning and rotation.
Hearing: The ballerina's sense of hearing allows her to perceive the music and synchronize
her movements to the correct rhythm and tempo of each piece of music, ensuring her
performance is coordinated and expressive.
o Study Tip: Hearing is essential for timing and musicality in dance.
4. Biological Changes Associated with Various States
Question: Explain the biological changes typically associated with the following: Sleep deprivation,
REM sleep, Tolerance, Opiate use.
Explanations:
Sleep Deprivation: Sleep deprivation is associated with a range of negative biological changes,
including fatigue, irritability, impaired concentration, memory problems, depression,
weight gain, joint pain, a suppressed immune system, and slowed performance with
increased susceptibility to accidents.
o Study Tip: Lack of sleep affects both mental and physical well-being.
, REM Sleep: REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is characterized by rapid brain waves
(similar to an awake state), rapid and irregular breathing, aroused genitals, and relaxed
muscles despite an active motor cortex (leading to dreams).
o Study Tip: REM sleep is when vivid dreaming occurs and the body is essentially
paralyzed.
Tolerance: After repeated use of some drugs, the brain adapts to the drug's chemistry, leading to
tolerance. This means more of the drug is needed to produce the same effect.
o Study Tip: Tolerance means the body gets used to the drug.
Opiate Use: Opiate drugs depress neural functioning, resulting in lessened pain and anxiety.
Biological changes during use include pupil constriction, slower breathing, and lethargy.
Long-term use can lead to the brain losing its ability to produce endorphins, resulting in painful
withdrawal symptoms upon cessation.
o Study Tip: Opiates are depressants that mimic the body's natural painkillers.
5. Modifying Behavior: Stopping Temper Tantrums
Question: Briefly explain how the concepts below could be used to help a child stop throwing temper
tantrums: Extinction (operant conditioning), Positive reinforcement, Modeling, Negative reinforcement,
Shaping, Extinction (classical conditioning).
Explanations:
Extinction (Operant Conditioning): If the child's tantrums are reinforced by attention,
extinction involves removing that reinforcement. By consistently ignoring the tantrums (as
long as the child is not harming themselves), the behavior should eventually decrease.
o Study Tip: No reward = behavior decreases.
Positive Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement involves rewarding desired behaviors. For
example, giving the child praise or a small treat when they express their frustration calmly
instead of having a tantrum can increase those positive behaviors.
o Study Tip: Add something good to increase good behavior.
Modeling: The child can learn to manage frustration by observing and imitating positive
behaviors modeled by parents or other adults. If adults in their life handle disappointment
calmly, the child is more likely to do the same.
o Study Tip: "Monkey see, monkey do" for good behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus to
increase a desired behavior. For example, a child might be placed in "time-out" (the aversive
stimulus) when a tantrum begins. They are allowed to leave time-out (removal of the aversive
stimulus) once they stop crying, thus reinforcing not crying.
o Study Tip: Remove something bad to increase good behavior.
