POLITICS IDEOLOGIES REVISION DOCUMENT
LIBERALISM
Key Thinkers- Classical liberalism
MAIN THEORISTS
ADDITIONAL THEORISTS
John Locke- the Father of liberalism
- Social contract theory- the people have a right to remove a corrupt ruler. Influenced
Glorious Revolution, French Revolution, American war of Independence.
- “Two treatises on government.”
- Function of government is to protect life, liberty and property. State performs a “night
watchman” role- minimal intervention.
- State needed to protect liberty- “where there is no law there is no freedom”
- Toleration- “Letter concerning toleration”- government should not meddle in the
personal lives of the people.
- Natural rights and liberties.
- Mechanistic theory- prior to states existing, rational humans had natural laws and
natural rights- able to create a system for themselves without government. States
should only exist to protect these, as humans were fine without states. States simply
speed up the resolution of disputes, which humans can do alone anyway.
J.S. Mill
- Harm principle- people should be free to pursue self fulfilment as long as it does not
harm others. Negative freedom.
- The role of the government and laws is to implement the harm principle. State is only
justified in limiting our actions if those actions impinge on the freedom of others.
- Democracy- fearful of mob rule and tyranny of majority, fear that people can be
swayed by charismatic, populist leaders- proposed property/educational
requirements for suffrage. Individual views ignored- democracy not compatible with
liberalism? “If all mankind were of one opinion…mankind would be no more justified
in silencing that one person than he would be justified in silencing mankind.”
- Women are rational too- universal suffrage as long as educated.
Mary Wollestonecraft- “Vindication of the rights of women”
- Developed Liberal idea of rationality with the idea that it extends to women too.
Women are rational beings capable of reason
- Equality of opportunity should be extended to women as well- education for women
and equal civil liberties.
Adam Smith on economics
, - “The wealth of nations”
- Markets are dictated by an “invisible hand” of supply and demand, thus should be left
alone to regulate themselves- Laissez faire economics. Freedom to choose goods,
services, employment.
- Diverged from accepted theory of mercantilism.
- Modern liberals would critique this theory by saying this causes lack of foundational
equality- difference in socioeconomic status at birth.
Montesquieu
- Key enlightenment thinker
- Separation of branches of government.
- Constitutional monarchy
Jeremy Bentham
- Utilitarianism.
- One of the earliest justifications for democracy- role of gov is to provide the “greatest
happiness to the greatest number of people.”
Voltaire
- Freedom of religion and expression
- Social progress achieved through reason
- Meritocracy
- Separation of powers and no tyranny
Key thinkers- modern liberalism
John Rawles
- “Veil of ignorance” theory- that if humans did not know where we would end up
before being born, a rational person would want to be born into a world of equality.
- Thus, rational humans will consent to an enabling state, egalitarian economic
system, equal basic standard of living.
- Equal opportunity and positive discrimination in employment.
- Justification for the enabling state.
Betty Friedan
- Extended Mill’s harm principle to women- argued that the expectation of women to be
shackled to suburban motherhood actively harms them and their pursuit of individual
self fulfilment.
T.H. Green
- Altruism tempers egoism- humans naturally have sympathy for one another.
- Balance personal freedom with an obligation to others.
- Positive freedom- “help others to help themselves”- some people need help to fulfil
their potential.
- “Humans are only truly free if we have a sense of caring”
Hobhouse and Hobson
, - Social justice is needed to achieve foundational equality
- Modern economic society makes it impossible to seek self fulfilment. Legal justice is
not enough- there needs to be social justice too.
- POSITIVE FREEDOM
J.M. Keynes
- Pragmatic approach to economy- sometimes it needs government intervention in
times of crisis
- Response to Wall St crash, WW1
- Disagreed with idea of market solutions to unemployment.
- Seen in practice in the post war consensus and Clement Atlee’s government
Key concepts of liberalism- modern and classical liberal ideas are all rooted in these
concepts.
Individualism
- Egoism, Atomism, self reliance.
- Atomism- society is a collection of self sufficient individuals
- Methodological individualism- any statements about politics or society should be
made in terms of the individual- they are more important than any social group.
- Ethical individualism- society should be constructed to benefit the individual, moral
priority given to individual rights.
- Unrestrained egoism- classical liberal and New Right idea- egotistical individualism
where humans are naturally self reliant and egotistical.
- Modern liberals– more optimistic on human nature, believe in tempered egoism
where egoism is tempered by a sense of social responsibility to those unable to look
after themselves.
Freedom
- Harm principle- J.S. Mill- only minimal restriction on human freedom should be an
inability to harm others. Does not accept restrictions that would prevent people
harming themselves.
- Classical liberals believe in negative freedom, modern liberals in positive freedoms.
- Individual liberty is the most sacrosanct principle of liberty.
- Liberty a natural right- exercising choice of where to live, work, what to buy etc.
- Liberty allows individual self fulfilment and actualization, ability to develop skills and
fulfil potential.
Justice (formal equality)
- Equality of opportunity- legal equality. Enables a meritocracy- desirable social
inequality. Inequality is an inevitable consequence of individual diversity of talents
and skills.
- Foundational equality in law to promote individualism- rights should be equal.
Oppose socal advantage on the basis of irrational factors such as race, gender.
- Inequality should reflect unequal distribution of talent and application, not irrational
factors.
- Modern liberals have developed the idea of foundational inequality- recognises that
the socio-economic position people are born into often prohibits this- s
LIBERALISM
Key Thinkers- Classical liberalism
MAIN THEORISTS
ADDITIONAL THEORISTS
John Locke- the Father of liberalism
- Social contract theory- the people have a right to remove a corrupt ruler. Influenced
Glorious Revolution, French Revolution, American war of Independence.
- “Two treatises on government.”
- Function of government is to protect life, liberty and property. State performs a “night
watchman” role- minimal intervention.
- State needed to protect liberty- “where there is no law there is no freedom”
- Toleration- “Letter concerning toleration”- government should not meddle in the
personal lives of the people.
- Natural rights and liberties.
- Mechanistic theory- prior to states existing, rational humans had natural laws and
natural rights- able to create a system for themselves without government. States
should only exist to protect these, as humans were fine without states. States simply
speed up the resolution of disputes, which humans can do alone anyway.
J.S. Mill
- Harm principle- people should be free to pursue self fulfilment as long as it does not
harm others. Negative freedom.
- The role of the government and laws is to implement the harm principle. State is only
justified in limiting our actions if those actions impinge on the freedom of others.
- Democracy- fearful of mob rule and tyranny of majority, fear that people can be
swayed by charismatic, populist leaders- proposed property/educational
requirements for suffrage. Individual views ignored- democracy not compatible with
liberalism? “If all mankind were of one opinion…mankind would be no more justified
in silencing that one person than he would be justified in silencing mankind.”
- Women are rational too- universal suffrage as long as educated.
Mary Wollestonecraft- “Vindication of the rights of women”
- Developed Liberal idea of rationality with the idea that it extends to women too.
Women are rational beings capable of reason
- Equality of opportunity should be extended to women as well- education for women
and equal civil liberties.
Adam Smith on economics
, - “The wealth of nations”
- Markets are dictated by an “invisible hand” of supply and demand, thus should be left
alone to regulate themselves- Laissez faire economics. Freedom to choose goods,
services, employment.
- Diverged from accepted theory of mercantilism.
- Modern liberals would critique this theory by saying this causes lack of foundational
equality- difference in socioeconomic status at birth.
Montesquieu
- Key enlightenment thinker
- Separation of branches of government.
- Constitutional monarchy
Jeremy Bentham
- Utilitarianism.
- One of the earliest justifications for democracy- role of gov is to provide the “greatest
happiness to the greatest number of people.”
Voltaire
- Freedom of religion and expression
- Social progress achieved through reason
- Meritocracy
- Separation of powers and no tyranny
Key thinkers- modern liberalism
John Rawles
- “Veil of ignorance” theory- that if humans did not know where we would end up
before being born, a rational person would want to be born into a world of equality.
- Thus, rational humans will consent to an enabling state, egalitarian economic
system, equal basic standard of living.
- Equal opportunity and positive discrimination in employment.
- Justification for the enabling state.
Betty Friedan
- Extended Mill’s harm principle to women- argued that the expectation of women to be
shackled to suburban motherhood actively harms them and their pursuit of individual
self fulfilment.
T.H. Green
- Altruism tempers egoism- humans naturally have sympathy for one another.
- Balance personal freedom with an obligation to others.
- Positive freedom- “help others to help themselves”- some people need help to fulfil
their potential.
- “Humans are only truly free if we have a sense of caring”
Hobhouse and Hobson
, - Social justice is needed to achieve foundational equality
- Modern economic society makes it impossible to seek self fulfilment. Legal justice is
not enough- there needs to be social justice too.
- POSITIVE FREEDOM
J.M. Keynes
- Pragmatic approach to economy- sometimes it needs government intervention in
times of crisis
- Response to Wall St crash, WW1
- Disagreed with idea of market solutions to unemployment.
- Seen in practice in the post war consensus and Clement Atlee’s government
Key concepts of liberalism- modern and classical liberal ideas are all rooted in these
concepts.
Individualism
- Egoism, Atomism, self reliance.
- Atomism- society is a collection of self sufficient individuals
- Methodological individualism- any statements about politics or society should be
made in terms of the individual- they are more important than any social group.
- Ethical individualism- society should be constructed to benefit the individual, moral
priority given to individual rights.
- Unrestrained egoism- classical liberal and New Right idea- egotistical individualism
where humans are naturally self reliant and egotistical.
- Modern liberals– more optimistic on human nature, believe in tempered egoism
where egoism is tempered by a sense of social responsibility to those unable to look
after themselves.
Freedom
- Harm principle- J.S. Mill- only minimal restriction on human freedom should be an
inability to harm others. Does not accept restrictions that would prevent people
harming themselves.
- Classical liberals believe in negative freedom, modern liberals in positive freedoms.
- Individual liberty is the most sacrosanct principle of liberty.
- Liberty a natural right- exercising choice of where to live, work, what to buy etc.
- Liberty allows individual self fulfilment and actualization, ability to develop skills and
fulfil potential.
Justice (formal equality)
- Equality of opportunity- legal equality. Enables a meritocracy- desirable social
inequality. Inequality is an inevitable consequence of individual diversity of talents
and skills.
- Foundational equality in law to promote individualism- rights should be equal.
Oppose socal advantage on the basis of irrational factors such as race, gender.
- Inequality should reflect unequal distribution of talent and application, not irrational
factors.
- Modern liberals have developed the idea of foundational inequality- recognises that
the socio-economic position people are born into often prohibits this- s
