All Rights Reserved.
This work has been summarised from the textbook Psychology: An Introduction
5e, by authors L. Swartz, C. de la Rey, N. Duncan, L. Townsend, V. O’Neill, and
M. Makhubela.
ISBN 9780190748906
This document, including all content and materials contained within, is the
intellectual property of Arièlle Denis. No part of these notes may be reproduced,
distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying,
recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written
permission of the author, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical
reviews and certain other non-commercial uses permitted by the copyright law.
For permission requests, please contact the author at
© 2025 Arièlle Denis,
University of Cape Town. All rights reserved.
, INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY i
PSY1004F | Term 2
Biological & Neuropsychology | Chapter 7 of Swartz et al. textbook
by Sameenah Rawoot
What is neuropsychology?
→ A combination of neurology and psychology, which focuses on the mind-body problem. The
interest is in the under- and overactivity of neurotransmitters, valuing cognition (how the brain
works) over emotion (the symptoms of the brain working).
Goal: To diagnose and treat people who have suffered brain injury and disease.
Two areas to note:
● Broca’s area: responsible for speech production
● Wernicke’s area: responsible for speech comprehension
→ Localisation theory: Each function is governed by a specific region of the brain.
This theory has been criticised for being over-simplified!
Luria - Known for his “dynamic localisation”, where complex functions are turned into basic
functions that can be localised. THEREFORE specific zones of the brain work together to
produce complex functions.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM vs PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
→ CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.
● The start of the brain has the medulla oblongata.
● The brain is LARGE like a grapefruit, WRINKLY like a walnut, and has porridge
consistency.
● Spinal cord is contained within the spinal column, communicates with all the muscles and
sense organs of the body below the head. It consists of grey matter surrounded by white
matter which provides insulation.
● Pairs of signal nerves pass signals for the environment to the spinal cord, to the body.
● The brain is protected by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which nourishes and protects the
meninges, along with the meninges and skull.
● The LAYERS of the protection of the brain are: Dura > Arachnoid > Pia mater.
→ PNS consists of any nerve structure outside of these. It can be divided into:
● Somatic nervous system - voluntary actions
, ● Autonomic nervous system - involuntary actions (other muscles attached to internal
organs and glands in the body)
○ Sympathetic nervous system will: dilate pupils, relax bronchi, increase heart rate,
shut digestive system down slightly, constrict blood vessels
○ Parasympathetic nervous system will: constrict pupils, tense bronchi, decrease
heart rate, allow digestion, dilate blood vessels
Two pathways:
● Afferent: information is taken to the CNS
● Efferent: information from the CNS is taken to the muscles and organs
Directions used in biology:
● Anterior: Front
● Posterior: Back
● Superior: Higher
● Inferior: Lower
● Lateral: Away from midline
● Medial: Towards midline
● Proximal: Closer to
● Distal: Further from
Ways we perceive the brain:
1. The order in which regions are developed according to evolution
2. Based on how regions appear divided between the two hemispheres (left and right)
FIRST PERCEPTION:
● Hindbrain
Medulla oblongata, which serves involuntary functions like breathing, circulation, and functions
of the heart. It is the start of the brain at the top of the spinal cord.
Pons, which is a “relay station” for information and sleep, sending signals from the spine to the
brain and back.
Cerebellum, which serves balance and posture as well as coordinated movement.
Damage to medulla oblongata: Death (if, e.g. no breathing can occur).
Dmg to pons: Narcolepsy (fall asleep whenever).
Dmg to cerebellum: Abnormal gait or vertigo.
● Midbrain
Reticular formation, which connects to all of the brain areas and serves for arousal and the
sleep/wake cycle.
, ● Forebrain
Thalamus, “info desk” which sends incoming info that it processes to the appropriate brain
region. It is a relay station as well.
Hypothalamus, which controls the pituitary gland (therefore the endocrine system) and therefore
emotion/sleep/sexual activity/temperature/hunger/thirst.
Dmg: Would affect these factors, like emotion or sleep.
→ The endocrine system affects our psychology, so the thyroid and adrenal glands are crucial!
The thyroid gland in particular, when underactive, can lead to depressive symptoms; while an
overactive thyroid can lead to anxiety symptoms.
● Has an effect on psychology as it works in harmony with the nervous system.
● Pituitary gland: works closely with hypothalamus, regulates and controls all other glands.
● Thyroid: metabolism.
● Adrenal glands consist of adrenal cortex and medulla: produce many different hormones
like adrenalin.
● Pancreas: regulates insulin and blood sugar levels.
● Ovaries and testes: responsible for sexual behaviour, reproductive hormones and general
physical growth.
Limbic system:
Amygdala, which controls emotion, learning, memory and fear/recognising fear.
Dmg: Inability to recognise fear.
Hippocampus, which controls memory and allows for the creation of new memory.
Dmg: Amnesia.
Basal ganglia, which controls movement, mood and memory.
Dmg: Change in posture and muscle tone.
● Cerebrum
Frontal lobe, which controls personality, higher order thinking, movements, memory, impulse,
inhibition. A motor cortex at the back of the lobe controls voluntary movements.
Dmg: Difficulties with planning, impulse control, abstract thinking, and inhibition.
It also has Broca’s area - allows for speech production and the understanding of speech (Dmg:
aphasia, writing would be impaired).
Temporal lobe, which has Wernicke’s area - allows for language comprehension (Dmg: Impaired
comprehension).
This work has been summarised from the textbook Psychology: An Introduction
5e, by authors L. Swartz, C. de la Rey, N. Duncan, L. Townsend, V. O’Neill, and
M. Makhubela.
ISBN 9780190748906
This document, including all content and materials contained within, is the
intellectual property of Arièlle Denis. No part of these notes may be reproduced,
distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying,
recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written
permission of the author, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical
reviews and certain other non-commercial uses permitted by the copyright law.
For permission requests, please contact the author at
© 2025 Arièlle Denis,
University of Cape Town. All rights reserved.
, INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY i
PSY1004F | Term 2
Biological & Neuropsychology | Chapter 7 of Swartz et al. textbook
by Sameenah Rawoot
What is neuropsychology?
→ A combination of neurology and psychology, which focuses on the mind-body problem. The
interest is in the under- and overactivity of neurotransmitters, valuing cognition (how the brain
works) over emotion (the symptoms of the brain working).
Goal: To diagnose and treat people who have suffered brain injury and disease.
Two areas to note:
● Broca’s area: responsible for speech production
● Wernicke’s area: responsible for speech comprehension
→ Localisation theory: Each function is governed by a specific region of the brain.
This theory has been criticised for being over-simplified!
Luria - Known for his “dynamic localisation”, where complex functions are turned into basic
functions that can be localised. THEREFORE specific zones of the brain work together to
produce complex functions.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM vs PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
→ CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.
● The start of the brain has the medulla oblongata.
● The brain is LARGE like a grapefruit, WRINKLY like a walnut, and has porridge
consistency.
● Spinal cord is contained within the spinal column, communicates with all the muscles and
sense organs of the body below the head. It consists of grey matter surrounded by white
matter which provides insulation.
● Pairs of signal nerves pass signals for the environment to the spinal cord, to the body.
● The brain is protected by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which nourishes and protects the
meninges, along with the meninges and skull.
● The LAYERS of the protection of the brain are: Dura > Arachnoid > Pia mater.
→ PNS consists of any nerve structure outside of these. It can be divided into:
● Somatic nervous system - voluntary actions
, ● Autonomic nervous system - involuntary actions (other muscles attached to internal
organs and glands in the body)
○ Sympathetic nervous system will: dilate pupils, relax bronchi, increase heart rate,
shut digestive system down slightly, constrict blood vessels
○ Parasympathetic nervous system will: constrict pupils, tense bronchi, decrease
heart rate, allow digestion, dilate blood vessels
Two pathways:
● Afferent: information is taken to the CNS
● Efferent: information from the CNS is taken to the muscles and organs
Directions used in biology:
● Anterior: Front
● Posterior: Back
● Superior: Higher
● Inferior: Lower
● Lateral: Away from midline
● Medial: Towards midline
● Proximal: Closer to
● Distal: Further from
Ways we perceive the brain:
1. The order in which regions are developed according to evolution
2. Based on how regions appear divided between the two hemispheres (left and right)
FIRST PERCEPTION:
● Hindbrain
Medulla oblongata, which serves involuntary functions like breathing, circulation, and functions
of the heart. It is the start of the brain at the top of the spinal cord.
Pons, which is a “relay station” for information and sleep, sending signals from the spine to the
brain and back.
Cerebellum, which serves balance and posture as well as coordinated movement.
Damage to medulla oblongata: Death (if, e.g. no breathing can occur).
Dmg to pons: Narcolepsy (fall asleep whenever).
Dmg to cerebellum: Abnormal gait or vertigo.
● Midbrain
Reticular formation, which connects to all of the brain areas and serves for arousal and the
sleep/wake cycle.
, ● Forebrain
Thalamus, “info desk” which sends incoming info that it processes to the appropriate brain
region. It is a relay station as well.
Hypothalamus, which controls the pituitary gland (therefore the endocrine system) and therefore
emotion/sleep/sexual activity/temperature/hunger/thirst.
Dmg: Would affect these factors, like emotion or sleep.
→ The endocrine system affects our psychology, so the thyroid and adrenal glands are crucial!
The thyroid gland in particular, when underactive, can lead to depressive symptoms; while an
overactive thyroid can lead to anxiety symptoms.
● Has an effect on psychology as it works in harmony with the nervous system.
● Pituitary gland: works closely with hypothalamus, regulates and controls all other glands.
● Thyroid: metabolism.
● Adrenal glands consist of adrenal cortex and medulla: produce many different hormones
like adrenalin.
● Pancreas: regulates insulin and blood sugar levels.
● Ovaries and testes: responsible for sexual behaviour, reproductive hormones and general
physical growth.
Limbic system:
Amygdala, which controls emotion, learning, memory and fear/recognising fear.
Dmg: Inability to recognise fear.
Hippocampus, which controls memory and allows for the creation of new memory.
Dmg: Amnesia.
Basal ganglia, which controls movement, mood and memory.
Dmg: Change in posture and muscle tone.
● Cerebrum
Frontal lobe, which controls personality, higher order thinking, movements, memory, impulse,
inhibition. A motor cortex at the back of the lobe controls voluntary movements.
Dmg: Difficulties with planning, impulse control, abstract thinking, and inhibition.
It also has Broca’s area - allows for speech production and the understanding of speech (Dmg:
aphasia, writing would be impaired).
Temporal lobe, which has Wernicke’s area - allows for language comprehension (Dmg: Impaired
comprehension).
