Political Philosophy – Midterm 2025
Table of content
Lecture 1 – Why Organize? .................................................................................. 2
Reading lecture 1................................................................................................ 3
Lecture 2 – Rawls’Principles of Justice ................................................................ 5
Reading lecture 2................................................................................................ 8
Lecture 3 – Feminism ............................................................................................ 9
Reading lecture 3.............................................................................................. 13
Lecture 4 – The Racial Contract ......................................................................... 14
Reading lecture 4.............................................................................................. 17
Lecture 5 – Guest Lecture Amanda Cawston: Structure as the Subject of Justice
............................................................................................................................. 18
Reading Lecture 5 ............................................................................................ 24
Lecture 6 – Justice at Work ................................................................................. 26
Reading lecture 6 ................................................................................................. 29
,Lecture 1 – Why Organize?
What is political philosophy
- Political philosophy = ‘’all activities associated with determining the governance of a
particular group of people’’
o Politics versus the political system
o Consensus and conflict
o Organization is political
- Political philosophy = ‘’radical and critical reflection on the fundamentals of reality and
human existence’’
o Two (personal) slogans of philosophy:
▪ Socrates: ‘’I know that I know nothing’’
▪ Newton: ‘’If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants’’
o -> looking for a productive form of not-knowing
- Major divide: normative versus critical theory
o Normative theory (lecture 1-6)
▪ Political philosophy as a branch of moral theory
▪ Philosopher as legislator and judge
▪ John Rawls
o Critical theory (lecture 7-10)
▪ Political philosophy as a branch of social philosophy
▪ Philosopher as cartographer
▪ Michel Foucault
Why organize?
- Why do people organize?
o Carl Schmitt: ‘’One could test all theories of state and political ideas according to
their anthropology and thereby classify these as to whether they consciously or
unconsciously presuppose man to be by nature evil or by nature good. […] The
problematic or unproblematic conception of man is decisive for the presupposition
of every further political consideration, the answer to the question where man is a
dangerous being or not, a risky or a harmless creature’’
- ‘’Man is evil’’ → Thomas Hobbes
o 17th-century English philosopher
o State of nature: war of all against all
o Need for a strong state
o An absolutist state to withhold the slippage into civil war
▪ -> organization as the outcome of humankind’s inability to cooperate
o Illustrations
▪ The pandemic & toilet paper
▪ Online freedom of expression versus top-down content moderation
- ‘’Man is good’’ → Benedictus Spinoza
o 17th-century Dutch philosopher
o State of nature: spontaneous cooperation
o No need for a strong state
o The ‘multitude’ spontaneously and directly governs itself
▪ -> organization as the outcome of individuals’ spontaneous cooperation
o Illustrations: The pandemic and mutual aid & social movements (e.g. university go
on strike)
2
, Reading lecture 1
In this section, Negri explores how the multitude can be understood as a political subject with the
capacity to exercise constituent power—that is, the power to create new forms of political
organization and social relations. He contrasts the multitude with traditional political categories like
the people, the proletariat, or the masses, emphasizing that the multitude is diverse, decentralized,
and not reducible to a single identity.
Negri argues that constituent power is immanent to the multitude—it doesn't come from above (like
a sovereign state) but from below, through the self-organization and cooperation of singularities
(individuals acting together). The multitude is not chaotic or unstructured, but rather a complex
network capable of collective decision-making without centralized authority.
He also touches on the relationship between constituent power and biopolitics, suggesting that in
the current post-Fordist (late capitalist) world, labor and life are increasingly intertwined. As a result,
the political subject (the multitude) must organize not just around production, but around life
itself—its reproduction, care, communication, and creativity.
1. Multitude as Political Subject:
o Unlike “the people” (which implies unity and representation), the multitude is plural,
diverse, and composed of singularities.
o It is not a class in the traditional Marxist sense, but a new form of collective
subjectivity suited to the postmodern condition.
2. Constituent Power from Below:
o Constituent power arises from the grassroots, not from institutional or sovereign
authority.
o It is expressed through autonomous cooperation, self-organization, and common
action.
3. Biopolitical Context:
o In post-Fordist society, labor is no longer just industrial—it is immaterial, affective,
cognitive, and deeply tied to life itself.
o The political struggle of the multitude is thus a struggle over the production of life
(biopolitics), not just economic production.
4. Creativity and Autonomy:
o The multitude has the creative potential to imagine and build new institutions, based
on shared values and common goals.
o This is where true democracy lies—not in representation, but in direct, horizontal
forms of power.
5. Against Sovereignty:
o The concept of sovereignty (a central authority with the final say) is rejected.
o Instead, power is distributed, dynamic, and generated through collective praxis.
3
Table of content
Lecture 1 – Why Organize? .................................................................................. 2
Reading lecture 1................................................................................................ 3
Lecture 2 – Rawls’Principles of Justice ................................................................ 5
Reading lecture 2................................................................................................ 8
Lecture 3 – Feminism ............................................................................................ 9
Reading lecture 3.............................................................................................. 13
Lecture 4 – The Racial Contract ......................................................................... 14
Reading lecture 4.............................................................................................. 17
Lecture 5 – Guest Lecture Amanda Cawston: Structure as the Subject of Justice
............................................................................................................................. 18
Reading Lecture 5 ............................................................................................ 24
Lecture 6 – Justice at Work ................................................................................. 26
Reading lecture 6 ................................................................................................. 29
,Lecture 1 – Why Organize?
What is political philosophy
- Political philosophy = ‘’all activities associated with determining the governance of a
particular group of people’’
o Politics versus the political system
o Consensus and conflict
o Organization is political
- Political philosophy = ‘’radical and critical reflection on the fundamentals of reality and
human existence’’
o Two (personal) slogans of philosophy:
▪ Socrates: ‘’I know that I know nothing’’
▪ Newton: ‘’If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants’’
o -> looking for a productive form of not-knowing
- Major divide: normative versus critical theory
o Normative theory (lecture 1-6)
▪ Political philosophy as a branch of moral theory
▪ Philosopher as legislator and judge
▪ John Rawls
o Critical theory (lecture 7-10)
▪ Political philosophy as a branch of social philosophy
▪ Philosopher as cartographer
▪ Michel Foucault
Why organize?
- Why do people organize?
o Carl Schmitt: ‘’One could test all theories of state and political ideas according to
their anthropology and thereby classify these as to whether they consciously or
unconsciously presuppose man to be by nature evil or by nature good. […] The
problematic or unproblematic conception of man is decisive for the presupposition
of every further political consideration, the answer to the question where man is a
dangerous being or not, a risky or a harmless creature’’
- ‘’Man is evil’’ → Thomas Hobbes
o 17th-century English philosopher
o State of nature: war of all against all
o Need for a strong state
o An absolutist state to withhold the slippage into civil war
▪ -> organization as the outcome of humankind’s inability to cooperate
o Illustrations
▪ The pandemic & toilet paper
▪ Online freedom of expression versus top-down content moderation
- ‘’Man is good’’ → Benedictus Spinoza
o 17th-century Dutch philosopher
o State of nature: spontaneous cooperation
o No need for a strong state
o The ‘multitude’ spontaneously and directly governs itself
▪ -> organization as the outcome of individuals’ spontaneous cooperation
o Illustrations: The pandemic and mutual aid & social movements (e.g. university go
on strike)
2
, Reading lecture 1
In this section, Negri explores how the multitude can be understood as a political subject with the
capacity to exercise constituent power—that is, the power to create new forms of political
organization and social relations. He contrasts the multitude with traditional political categories like
the people, the proletariat, or the masses, emphasizing that the multitude is diverse, decentralized,
and not reducible to a single identity.
Negri argues that constituent power is immanent to the multitude—it doesn't come from above (like
a sovereign state) but from below, through the self-organization and cooperation of singularities
(individuals acting together). The multitude is not chaotic or unstructured, but rather a complex
network capable of collective decision-making without centralized authority.
He also touches on the relationship between constituent power and biopolitics, suggesting that in
the current post-Fordist (late capitalist) world, labor and life are increasingly intertwined. As a result,
the political subject (the multitude) must organize not just around production, but around life
itself—its reproduction, care, communication, and creativity.
1. Multitude as Political Subject:
o Unlike “the people” (which implies unity and representation), the multitude is plural,
diverse, and composed of singularities.
o It is not a class in the traditional Marxist sense, but a new form of collective
subjectivity suited to the postmodern condition.
2. Constituent Power from Below:
o Constituent power arises from the grassroots, not from institutional or sovereign
authority.
o It is expressed through autonomous cooperation, self-organization, and common
action.
3. Biopolitical Context:
o In post-Fordist society, labor is no longer just industrial—it is immaterial, affective,
cognitive, and deeply tied to life itself.
o The political struggle of the multitude is thus a struggle over the production of life
(biopolitics), not just economic production.
4. Creativity and Autonomy:
o The multitude has the creative potential to imagine and build new institutions, based
on shared values and common goals.
o This is where true democracy lies—not in representation, but in direct, horizontal
forms of power.
5. Against Sovereignty:
o The concept of sovereignty (a central authority with the final say) is rejected.
o Instead, power is distributed, dynamic, and generated through collective praxis.
3
