AQA PSYCHOLOGY A-LEVEL PAPER 2 EXAM QUESTIONS AND CORRECT ANSWERS

AQA PSYCHOLOGY A-LEVEL PAPER 2 EXAM QUESTIONS AND CORRECT ANSWERS "Classical Conditioning - CORRECT ANSWER Pavlov - When a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditional stimulus so that it takes on the properties on the stimulus and is able to produced a conditioned response" "Classical Conditioning steps - CORRECT ANSWER UCS -> UCR NS -> No Response UCS+NS -> UCR CS -> CR" "Features of CC - CORRECT ANSWER - If time interval is too great between conditioning it does not work - CR will become extinct in the absence of the UCS after a while - If extinct and paired again they pair more quickly (Spontaneous Recovery) - Stimulus generalisation, CR is created to things similar to CS" "Vicarious Reinforcement - CORRECT ANSWER Individuals learn about the likely consequences by observing a model's experiences and adjust their behaviour to obtain the same experience" "The Role of the meditational Processes - CORRECT ANSWER Observer forms a mental representation pf the behaviour displayed of the model and the probable consequences it will also happen to them" "Evaluation of Social Learning Theory - CORRECT ANSWER - Applications in human behaviour - research support (Bandura) - Problems with causality, it may not be observing but rather people already have this a try to find people similar - Approach disregards other potential influences like gender" "Bandura Procedures - CORRECT ANSWER Children were exposed to aggressive or non aggressive models interacting with a bobo doll" "Bandura Findings - CORRECT ANSWER Children who had aggressive models were aggressive to the doll Children who had non-aggressive models were not aggressive to the doll" "Cognitive - CORRECT ANSWER Refers to mental processes such as perception, memory and reasoning" "Schema - CORRECT ANSWER A cognitive framework that helps us organise and interpret information" "Why are Schemas useful? - CORRECT ANSWER They help us make sense of new information by filling in gaps" "Theoretical Models - CORRECT ANSWER Pictorial representations of cognitive processes based on research evidence" "Computer Model - CORRECT ANSWER Computer analogy of input process storage output to represent the human cognitive" "Cognitive Neuroscience - CORRECT ANSWER non-invasive imaging techniques such as PET and fMRI scans to help psychologists understand how the brain works" "PET - CORRECT ANSWER Positron emission tomography" "fMRI - CORRECT ANSWER Functional Magnetic Resonance imaging" "The Brain - CORRECT ANSWER Co-ordinates the functioning of the body" "Frontal Lobes - CORRECT ANSWER Functions like speech, though and learning" "Parietal Lobes - CORRECT ANSWER Processes sensory information like touch, temperature and pain" "Occipital lobes - CORRECT ANSWER Processes visual information" "Temporal lobes - CORRECT ANSWER Involved with hearing and memory" "Evaluation of the Biological Approach - CORRECT ANSWER - Scientific - Application into Neurochem, drug development and psychological rhythms - Approach is reductionist (blames everything on one factor) - Does not take into account cultrual factord" "Iceberg analogy: - CORRECT ANSWER tip = conscious just underwater = preconscious deep underwater = unconcious" "Concious - CORRECT ANSWER Reality, Conscious mind, thoughts" "Preconcious - CORRECT ANSWER Memories" "Unconcious - CORRECT ANSWER The majority: rooted fears, creativity, dreams" "The id - CORRECT ANSWER Unconscious, contains the libido, operates to the pleasure principle and wants instant gratification" "The ego - CORRECT ANSWER Mediates between impulsive demands of the id and reality of the super ego" "The Super ego - CORRECT ANSWER Your conscience and morals of societal rules, feelings of guilt, what you strive towards" "Libido - CORRECT ANSWER Biological energy created by reproductive instincts" "Defense Mechanisms - CORRECT ANSWER In the unconscious, mechanisms to help you deal with situations that are traumatic" "Repression - CORRECT ANSWER Blocking unacceptable thoughts, may influence you even if you don't remember them" "Denial - CORRECT ANSWER Refusal to accept reality and the pain that follows" "Displacement - CORRECT ANSWER redirecting of thoughts or feelings in situations where you cannot express them to the actual situation" "Psychosexual Stages - CORRECT ANSWER Driving forces in development of sexual energy" "Oral - CORRECT ANSWER 0-2 years focal point of sensation it biting things" "Anal - CORRECT ANSWER 2-3 years beginning of ego development Expulsion of waste" "Phallic - CORRECT ANSWER 3-6 years Energy is focused on genitals Oedipus Complex Castration Anxiety" "Latent - CORRECT ANSWER 6-12 years Developing mastery of the world around them repress early years" "Genital - CORRECT ANSWER 12+ years fixing of Sexual energy on genitals beginning of adult life and forming relationships" "Evaluations of the psychodynamic approach - CORRECT ANSWER - Application in controlling the masses and therapy - case study approach is pioneering - Scientific support because of use of scientific methodology in case studies - gender bias approach to men - Culture bias to western culture e.g. china tends to ignore feelings while we have therapy" "Free Will - CORRECT ANSWER The ability to act at one's own discretion" "Hierarchy of needs - CORRECT ANSWER Motivational theory proposed by Maslow Self actualisation Esteem Love Safety Psychological" "Psychological Needs - CORRECT ANSWER Breathing, food, water" "Safety Needs - CORRECT ANSWER Security, resources, morality, health" "Love needs - CORRECT ANSWER Friendship, family" "Esteem need - CORRECT ANSWER Self esteem, confidence, achievement" "Self-Actualisation - CORRECT ANSWER Peak experience Creativity, problem solving, spontaneity" "The Self - CORRECT ANSWER Our personal identity" "Congruence - CORRECT ANSWER The similarity between yourself and your ideal self" "Conditions of worth - CORRECT ANSWER Conditions imposed on someone in order to earn positive regard" "Unconditional positive regard - CORRECT ANSWER love and acceptance no matter what" "Conditional Positive Regard - CORRECT ANSWER love and acceptance for a reason" "Pilot Study - CORRECT ANSWER A small-scale trial run of a study to test aspects of design" "Repeated Measures Design - CORRECT ANSWER One group does all trials" "Limitations of repeated measures design - CORRECT ANSWER Order effect e.g. practicing trial or getting tired Guessing the purpose of the test in second trial leads to demand charecteristics Can be solved by counterbalancing" "Counterbalancing - CORRECT ANSWER AB or ABBA when repeating an experiment it ensures each condition is tested in equal amounts" "Independant Groups Design - CORRECT ANSWER Two Different Groups do two different trials" "Limitations of independent group design - CORRECT ANSWER Cannot control participant variables Needs more participants Can be solved by randomly allocating" "Quasi Experiments - CORRECT ANSWER The IV is something that just exists and the DV is tested e.g. gender" "face validity - CORRECT ANSWER extent to which respondents can tell what the items are measuring" "Concurrent Validity - CORRECT ANSWER the extent to which two measures of the same trait or ability agree" "Ecological Validity - CORRECT ANSWER The extent to which a study is realistic or representative of real life." "Temporal validity - CORRECT ANSWER the degree to which the results can be generalised across time" "Empirical Method - CORRECT ANSWER gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data, and logical reasoning" "Replicability - CORRECT ANSWER when a study's findings are able to be duplicated, ideally by independent investigators" "Falsifiability - CORRECT ANSWER a feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will prove the theory wrong" "Science - CORRECT ANSWER A body of systematic knowledge with principle of laws that are natural" "Qualitative Data - CORRECT ANSWER descriptive data" "mean - CORRECT ANSWER average" "Median - CORRECT ANSWER the middle score in a distribution" "mode - CORRECT ANSWER the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution" "Advantages of mean - CORRECT ANSWER easily understood easy to calculate uses all the data values" "Advantages of mode - CORRECT ANSWER It can be used with any type of data Not affected by extreme scores" "Advantages of median - CORRECT ANSWER Easy to calculate not affected by extreme scores Works on ordinal data" "Evaluation of Natural and Quasi Experiments - CORRECT ANSWER - Lack of control of the IV - You cannot use random allocation due to biases - Sample may have unique characteristics which would bias results" "Range - CORRECT ANSWER the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution" "Advantages of range - CORRECT ANSWER Easy to calculate includes extremes" "standard deviation - CORRECT ANSWER a measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean" "Advantages of standard deviation - CORRECT ANSWER Takes all exact values into account Not difficult to calculate with a calculator" "Disadvantage of a mean - CORRECT ANSWER Can easily be distorted by extreme values It cannot be used with nominal data" "Disadvantages of median - CORRECT ANSWER Not as sensitive as the mean because exact values are not reflected" "Disadvantages of the mode - CORRECT ANSWER does not use all the data values May not exist if there is not a more common value" "Disadvantages of range - CORRECT ANSWER Does not take into account distribution of numbers" "Disadvantages of standard deviation - CORRECT ANSWER May hide some characteristics of data set e.g. extreme values" "Demand Characteristics - CORRECT ANSWER A cue that makes participants consciously aware of the aims of the study and thus act how the aims tell them to" "Evaluation of correlation - CORRECT ANSWER - no conclusion can be made from one variable causing another - correlation does not equal causation - intervening variables may be the cause - lacks internal/external validity - correlations are useful for following trends - correlations are useful for finding significance" "external Validity - CORRECT ANSWER extent to which we can generalise findings to real-world settings" "Stratified Sampling - CORRECT ANSWER Participants are picked based on there proportion to the rest of the population" "Evaluation of Stratified Sampling - CORRECT ANSWER - Representative - Time consuming" "Key features of science - CORRECT ANSWER Hypothesis can be tested Empirical Objective Systematic" "Key features of non Science - CORRECT ANSWER Not testable Intuitive Subjective" "Deductive Method - CORRECT ANSWER Begins with a general theory and narrows down into a specific hypothesis" "Inductive Method - CORRECT ANSWER Works from specific theories and observe to broader theories" "Systematic Sampling - CORRECT ANSWER Use a predetermined technique e.g. every 6th participant" "Evaluation of Systematic Sampling - CORRECT ANSWER - Unbias - Not truly random unless you get a random number and sample every nth time" "Volunteer Sampling - CORRECT ANSWER Advertising for volunteers" "Evaluation of volunteer sampling - CORRECT ANSWER - gives access to a variety of participants - bias to more motivated participants" "Bias - CORRECT ANSWER A systematic distorition" "Informed Consent - CORRECT ANSWER Participants must have information concerning the nature and purpose of the research in order to give consent" "Dealing with Deception - CORRECT ANSWER - Deception should be approved by ethics committee - participants should be debriefed after - Cost-benefit analysis is flawed because judgements are subjective - debriefing cannot turn the clock back" "Dealing with the right to withdraw - CORRECT ANSWER - participants should be informed they can withdraw at any stage - participants may feel they cannot withdraw due to money or spoiling study" "Dealing with protection from harm - CORRECT ANSWER - Avoid risks - Stop study if harm is suspected - Harm may not be apparent at the time" "Dealing with Confidentiality - CORRECT ANSWER - Researchers should not record names - you can normally work out people's identity from location" "Dealing with Privacy - CORRECT ANSWER - Do not study anyone without consent unless in public - no universal agreement as what is public" "Naturalistic Observations - CORRECT ANSWER Observed in an everyday setting" "Controlled observation - CORRECT ANSWER Some variables are regulated by the researcher to investigate certain variables in an everyday state" "Over observation - CORRECT ANSWER Participants are aware they are being studied" "Covert observations - CORRECT ANSWER participants are not aware they are being studied" "Evaluation of observational techniques - CORRECT ANSWER - observing is subjective - observer bias" "Evaluation of naturalistic and controlled observations - CORRECT ANSWER - Naturalistic is high in ecological validity - There is little control of what is happening - Controlled can focus on particular aspects of behaviour - Environment might feel unnatural" "Evaluation of overt and overt observation - CORRECT ANSWER - covert observation makes behaviour more natural - covert is unethical because they do not know they are being watched - Overt observations may create demand charecteristics - Overt is more ethical" "Participant observation - CORRECT ANSWER Observer is part of the group being observed, but the other participants do not know" "Non-participant observation - CORRECT ANSWER The observer observes from a distance and does not interact" "Evaluation of non-participant and participant - CORRECT ANSWER - non-participant is likely to be more objective - participant can give insight into insider details might might loose track of the study" "Unstructured observations - CORRECT ANSWER Researcher records all relevant behaviour but has no system of recording it" "Structured observations - CORRECT ANSWER Uses various systems to observe and record behaviour e.g. behavioural categories" "Behavioural categories - CORRECT ANSWER Dividing target behaviour into a subset of specific and operationalised behaviours - objective - cover everything - mutually exclusive" "Event Sampling - CORRECT ANSWER Counting the number of times a certain behaviour happens e.g. counting how many times a person smiles in 10 minutes" "Time sampling - CORRECT ANSWER Recording behaviour in time frames e.g. person is smiling at that exact point, now i wait 30 seconds to look again" "Questionnaires - CORRECT ANSWER Data collected through written questions" "Structured Interview - CORRECT ANSWER Questions are decided in advance" "Unstructured Interview - CORRECT ANSWER New questions develop as the interview progresses" "Interview - CORRECT ANSWER face-to-face interaction to collect data" "Open questions - CORRECT ANSWER Questions with free response to the person" "Closed Questions - CORRECT ANSWER Questions with set answers to choose from" "Design of interviews - CORRECT ANSWER - recording the interview - effect of the interviewer must be minimal e.g. body language - skilled follow up questions" "Evaluation of open questions - CORRECT ANSWER - expanding answers increase amount of information - qualitative data is difficult to summarise" "Evaluation of closed questions - CORRECT ANSWER - Limited answers - gives quantitative data which is easy to analyse" "Type 1 error - CORRECT ANSWER Rejecting null hypothesis when it is true" "Type 2 error - CORRECT ANSWER failing to reject a false null hypothesis" "One tailed test - CORRECT ANSWER A test with a directional hypothesis" "Two tailed test - CORRECT ANSWER A test with a non directional hypothesis" "Correlation hypothesis - CORRECT ANSWER States the expected association between two variables" "Correlation coefficient - CORRECT ANSWER A number between -1 and +1 that tells us how closely co variables are correlated" "Meta Analysis - CORRECT ANSWER Analysis of many studies to find an overall conclusion" "Systematic Review - CORRECT ANSWER finding studies that have similar aims to yours" "Case studies - CORRECT ANSWER Detailed study of an individual, institution or event" "Content analysis - CORRECT ANSWER Behaviour is observed indirectly in written, verbal of physical material" "Effect size - CORRECT ANSWER A measure of the strength between two variables" "Evaluation of meta analysis - CORRECT ANSWER - increases validity because of wider samples - allows us to reach an overall conclusion - studies may not be comparable" "Evaluation of case studies - CORRECT ANSWER - gives us in-depth rich data - good for investigating rare human behaviour - difficult to generalise as everyone is unique - evidence could be unreliable if recollection of past events is involved" "Evaluation of content analysis - CORRECT ANSWER - high ecological validity - observer bias" "Evaluation of the mean - CORRECT ANSWER - sensitive - cannot be used with nominal data" "Evaluation of the median - CORRECT ANSWER - not affected by extreme scores - not as sensitive as the mean" "Evaluation of the mode - CORRECT ANSWER - unaffected by extreme values - not useful when there are several modes in data" "Evaluation of the Range - CORRECT ANSWER - easy to calculate - affected by extreme values" "Evaluation of standard deviation - CORRECT ANSWER - precise as it takes into account all data - may hide some characteristics of data" "Nominal - CORRECT ANSWER Categorical data" "Oridnal - CORRECT ANSWER Ordered data that can be ranked" "Interval - CORRECT ANSWER Data is measured in equal intervals of measurement e.g. time" "Ratio - CORRECT ANSWER True zero point quantities e.g. temperature" "Evaluation of quantitative data - CORRECT ANSWER - easy to analyse - data may oversimplify reality" "Evaluation of qualitative data - CORRECT ANSWER - provide detailed information - complex" "Evaluation of primary data - CORRECT ANSWER - control of data - very lengthy and expensive process" "Evaluation of secondary data - CORRECT ANSWER - easier - may not fit the needs of the study" "Peer review - CORRECT ANSWER Independant experts to access the qaulity and validity of your research" "Peer review purpose - CORRECT ANSWER 1. allocation of funding 2. publication 3. assessing research ratings" "Evaluation of peer review - CORRECT ANSWER - difficult to find an expert in your field -Anonymity of the reviewer can lead to researchers trying to ruin your study work because they don't like you - Publication bias" "Economic psychology - CORRECT ANSWER The development, promotion and application of psuchology for the public good" "Applications of economic psychology - CORRECT ANSWER - social change to bring positive changes on the economy - cognitive interview to reduce expenses of wrongful arrests - Bowlby's theory helps raising children to become productive members of society - mental health costs - Biopsychology helps make smart machines to help in the work force" "Statistical test for independent nominal - CORRECT ANSWER Chi Squared" "Statistical test for independent ordinal - CORRECT ANSWER Mann-Whitney" "Statistical test for independent interval - CORRECT ANSWER Unrelated T test" "Statistical test for related nominal - CORRECT ANSWER Sign Test" "Related tests - CORRECT ANSWER Matched/Repeated experimental designs" "Indepedant tests - CORRECT ANSWER Use an independent experiment design" "Statistical test for Related nominal - CORRECT ANSWER Sign test" "Statistical test for related ordinal - CORRECT ANSWER Wilcoxon's" "Statistical test for related interval - CORRECT ANSWER Related t test" "Statistical test correlation nominal - CORRECT ANSWER Chi Squared" "Statistical test correlation ordinal - CORRECT ANSWER spearman's" "Statistical test correlation interval - CORRECT ANSWER Pearson's R" "Nominal Tests - CORRECT ANSWER Independant = chisquared Related = sign test Correlational = chisquared" "Ordinal Tests - CORRECT ANSWER Independent = mann-whitney Related= Wilcoxns Correlation = Spearmans" "Interval Tests - CORRECT ANSWER Independent = unrelated t test Related = Related t test Correlation = Perason's R" "Inter rater reliability statistical test - CORRECT ANSWER Ordinal, Correlation, Spearmans" "Abstract - CORRECT ANSWER - Write last - Summary of the research report" "Title Page - CORRECT ANSWER Indicate what the study is about and will include the IV and DV" "Introduction - CORRECT ANSWER Explains where the hypothesis came from and the aims of the research" "Method - CORRECT ANSWER Replicate your study exactly of how you conducted it" "Design - CORRECT ANSWER Experimental design , IV and different conditions, DV and controls This goes in the method" "Participants - CORRECT ANSWER Outline target population and type of sample, including how you obtained the sample This goes in method" "Procedure - CORRECT ANSWER Describe the precise procedure you followed when carrying out the research" "Results - CORRECT ANSWER Present the descriptive statistics followed by the inferential statistics A table can be used to display descriptive statistics but do not include raw data" "Discussion - CORRECT ANSWER Outline findings in plain english and relate results to hypothesis Then evaluate your study and conclude" "References - CORRECT ANSWER A list of all sources cited in the essay in alphabetical order" "Materials - CORRECT ANSWER Describe materials used e.g. surveys, computer equipment or word lists" "Structure of a lab report - CORRECT ANSWER Title Page Abstract Introduction Method - design - participants - materials - procedure Results Discussion References" "Sensory Neurones - CORRECT ANSWER Carry impulses from sensory receptor" "Relay Neurons - CORRECT ANSWER Allow sensory and motor neurones to communicate" "Motor Neurones - CORRECT ANSWER Forms synapses with muscles and control their contractions" "Neuron structure - CORRECT ANSWER " "Brain Localisation - CORRECT ANSWER " "Endocrine Glands - CORRECT ANSWER Produce and secrete hromones" "Hormones - CORRECT ANSWER Chemical messengers that influence many processes" "Pituitary gland - CORRECT ANSWER produces hormones to influence the release of other hormones from other glands It is controlled by the hypothalmus" "Hormones released by the pituitary gland - CORRECT ANSWER ACTH stress response LH and FSH produce oestrogen and progesterone or testosterone and sperm" "Adrenal Glands - CORRECT ANSWER Made up of the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla" "Adrenal Cortex - CORRECT ANSWER outer part of the adrenal gland produces cortisol which supports important bodily functions including breathing and anti-inflamitory" "Adrenal Medulla - CORRECT ANSWER Inner part of the adrenal gland Produces adrenaline" "Amygdala - CORRECT ANSWER Associates sensory signals with anger and fear and sends distress signals to the hypothalmus" "Response to sudden acute stressors - CORRECT ANSWER SNS is triggered, adrenal medulla is triggered and adrenaline is sent around the bloodstream Breathing increases, heart beats faster, kicks in release of glucose When threat is gone ANS dampens down stress response" "Response to chronic ongoing stressors - CORRECT ANSWER Hypothalamus activates the HPA axis H - hypothalamus, releases a chemical messenger CRH which is released into the bloodstream P - pituitary gland, CRH causes the gland to release ACTH, it goes into bloodstream and targets adrenal glands A - adrenal glands, ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol- quick burst on energy, low sensitivity to pain (positive), impaired cognitive performance and lowered immune response (negative)" "HPA feedback - CORRECT ANSWER hypothalamus and pituitary gland have receptors that monitor cortisol levels" "Flight or fight - CORRECT ANSWER A sequence triggered when the body prepares for threat" "Evaluation of flight or fight - CORRECT ANSWER - tend and befriend response in women - Negative consequences of fight or flight may be adaptive but are bad for modern day life - Avoid confrontation comes before flight/fight - acute stress leads to cooperative behaviour e.g. 9/11" "What happens in a stressful situation? - CORRECT ANSWER Amygdala responds to sensory input and connects this with the emotions associated with F or F Amygdala simulates the hypothalamus to activate the sympathomedullary pathway and the SNS" "Adrenaline - CORRECT ANSWER SNS stimulate adrenal medulla to secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline to prepare the body for F or F" "Motor Area - CORRECT ANSWER the part of the cortex that is largely responsible for the body's voluntary movement In the Frontal Lobe" "Somatosensory area - CORRECT ANSWER An area of the parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch In the Parietal Lobe" "Visual Area - CORRECT ANSWER receives visual stimuli that originates on the retinas of the eyes (primary visual cortex) and interprets the visual stimuli (visual association area) In the occipital lobe" "Auditory Area - CORRECT ANSWER analyses and processes acoustic information In the temporal lobe" "Broca's area - CORRECT ANSWER Controls language expression, tongue and mouth In the frontal lobe" "Wernicke's area - CORRECT ANSWER controls language reception In the temporal lbe" "Broca and Tan case study - CORRECT ANSWER Patient could only say the syllable "tan" He could understand spoken language but could not speak nor write" "Evaluation of localisation of function - CORRECT ANSWER - Lashley, basic motor functions were localised but more complex functions like learning were holistic - It is less able each individual part but how well they can work together that will determine how well the brain can work - Broca's/Wernicke's aphasia - individual differences in the size and power of language areas - Language production may not be just Broca's area, Dronkers et al MRI imaging" "infradian rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER biological rhythms that occur once a month or once a season" "Example of infradian rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER menstrual cycle seasons" "The menstrual cycle - CORRECT ANSWER Infradian Rhythm - around 28 days - ovulation occurs half way through the cycle - After ovulation progesterone increases in preparation for possible implantation of the ova into the uterus" "Evaluation of Ultradian Rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER - Individual differences in sleep stages are attributed to differences in non-biological factors, however some may be genetic Tucker et al - Basic Rest Activity Cycle is a theory that the stages of sleep continue into the day even when we are awake, the difference is we move through stages of alertness" "Ultradian Rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER Biological rhythms that occur more than once a day" "Evaluation of circadian rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER - individual differences, cycles can vary from 13 to 65 hours and reach peaks at different times - Research Methodology flaw, participants are no totally isolated from artificial light in most experiments as dim light was suggested to not affect them but this may not be true Czeisler et al found it was not -Chronotherapeutics, the study of how timing affects drugs is a useful application - Temperature may be more important than light setting circadian rhythms, light may be a trigger but change in temp sends more powerful signals to the Buhr et al" "Sleep Stages (REM) - CORRECT ANSWER An Ultradian Rhythm - Cycle repeats itself every 90 minutes - Stage 1: light sleep, muscle activity slows - Stage 2: Breathing and heart rate slows - Stage 3: Deep Sleep begins - Stage 4: very deep sleep, brain produces delta waves - Stage 5: REM, dreaming occurs" "Examples of ultradian rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER REM, NREM, digestion" "Evaluation of Infradian rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER - The menstrual cycle influences mate choice, Penton-Voak et al found in the cycle women prefer more masculine faces as it shows good genes for short term meetings so they are passed to offspring, but prefer more feminine faces for long term relationships because they are seen as kinder - The role of exogenous cues, womens cycles can sync due to pheromones of others - Lunar rhythms have very little empirical evidence" "Lateralisation - CORRECT ANSWER The dominance of one hemisphere of the brain for particular physical and psychological functions" "How are the two hemispheres of the brain connected? - CORRECT ANSWER Through a bundle of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum" "Split Brain Patients - CORRECT ANSWER people whose corpus callosum has been surgically severed for treatment of epilepsy" "Evaluation of hemispheric lateralisation - CORRECT ANSWER - increases neural processing capacity in studies e.g. being able to process to tasks at once - Tonnessen et al found a relationship between left or right handedness and immune disorders - individual differences, lateralisation changes with age - Language may not be restricted to language, J.W. developed the capacity to speak out the right hemisphere - Low sample size in most studies for split brain research" "Sperry and Gazzaniga - CORRECT ANSWER Investigated functional differences between left and right cerebral hemispheres using "split-brain" studies Took advantage of the fact the left eye info gets processed by the right hemisphere and right eye to the left When showed a picture of a cat to the left eye the patient saw nothing because the right hemisphere has no language processing Left hemisphere is dominant in terms of speech and language. Right is dominant in visual-motor tasks." "Split Brain Research Conditions - CORRECT ANSWER - images - words" "Endogenous pacemakers - CORRECT ANSWER Internal biological structures that control and regulate the rhythm. Products of genetic inheritence" "suprachiasmatic nucleus - CORRECT ANSWER a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm This is the bodies master clock and regulates feelings of sleepiness and arousal" "The pineal gland - CORRECT ANSWER secretes melatonin at night to control daily rhythms" "Exogenous zeitgebers - CORRECT ANSWER External environmental factors that influence the rhythm." "Light (exogenous zeitgebers) - CORRECT ANSWER Receptors in the SCN are sensitive to changes in light (melanopsin) and can set the body clock light -> Melanospin -> Optic nerver -> SCN -> Pineal gland -> secreted melatonin" "Social Cues (exogenous zeitgebers) - CORRECT ANSWER Social stimuli such as meal time and bed time routines can set the body clock" "Negative Plasticity - CORRECT ANSWER The brain's ability to rewire itself can sometimes have maladaptive behavioural consequences" "Neuronal Unmasking - CORRECT ANSWER WALL(1977) identified what he referred to as dormant synapses (where they exist but are not always in use) synaptic connection's that exist anatomically, but have no specific function under normal circumstances, these synapses are ineffective as the rate of neural input is too low for them to be activated HOWEVER, increasing the rate of input to these synapses, which can occur after surrounding brain areas become damaged, can 'UNMASK' these dormant synapses This creates a lateral spread of activation which, in time, can give way to the development of new structures" "Stem Cells - CORRECT ANSWER Stem cells are unspecialised cells that can be used to take on the role of brain neurons which can replace dying nerves. Stem cells also secrete growth factors that revive injured cells Stem cells can also create neural networks which lines an uninjured brain site with the damaged part." "Evaluation of plasticity - CORRECT ANSWER - Kempermann et al investigated whether an enriched environment could alter the number of neurons in the brain. He found an increased number of neurons of rats in complex enviroments rather than cages - Maguire et al found taxi drivers had increased spatial navigation as a result of larger posterior hippocampi" "Evaluation of recovery after trauma - CORRECT ANSWER - Tajiri et al found stem cells increased development of neuron like cells in rat brains. Randomly assigned two groups of rats, one received stem cells implants and the control were given no stem cells, three months later the stem cell rats showed neuron growth in the area affected - Functional plasticity reduces with age -Practical applications to neurohabillitation - There is no record to functionality before trauma so it is difficult to know the extent of recovery" "Factors affecting recovery of the brain after trauma - CORRECT ANSWER - age Marquez de la Plata et al found that following brain trauma, older patients regained less function - educational attainment found that college education or equivalent were 7 times more likely than those who didn't finish high school to achieve disability free recovery" "Equipotentiality Theory - CORRECT ANSWER When the brain is damaged, the rest of the brain appears to recognise in an attempt to recover lost function, surviving neurons chip in to help achieve the same neurological action" "Electroencephalogram (EEG) - CORRECT ANSWER A method of recording changed in the electrical activity of the brain using electrodes attached to the scalp and are outputted in brain waves" "functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) - CORRECT ANSWER an imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain by measuring changes in the blood's oxygen levels as, increased blood flow mean increased brain activity" "event-related potential (ERP) - CORRECT ANSWER Electrical changes in the brain that correspond to the brain's response to a specific event; measured with EEG." "Post-mortem examinations - CORRECT ANSWER The brain is analysed after death to determine whether certain observed behaviours during the patient's lifetime can be linked to abnormalities in the brain." "Advantages of fMRI - CORRECT ANSWER - noninvasive - more objective than verbal reports" "Disadvantages of fMRI - CORRECT ANSWER - Measures blood flow and is not a direct measure of neural activity, and therefore is not a true quantitative measure - overlooks networked nature of brain and focusses on localised activity" "Advantages of EEG - CORRECT ANSWER - real time recording - useful in clinical diagnosis for epilepsy" "Disadvantages of EEG - CORRECT ANSWER - Does not detect activity in deeper regions of the brain - Electrical activity can be picked up by several neighbouring electrodes and therefore and therefore means researches cannot distinguish close parts of the brain" "Advantages of ERP - CORRECT ANSWER - Provides a continuous measure of processing in response to particular stimuli, it makes it easier for specific experimental manipulation - can measure stimuli even in the absence of a behavioural approach" "Disadvantages of ERP - CORRECT ANSWER - requires a large amount of trials to gain meaningful data because signals are so small - deep electrical impulses cannot be recorded and recording is therefore restricted to the neocortex" "Advantages of PME - CORRECT ANSWER - detailed and anatomical study of the brain that is not possible with noninvasive techniques - Harrison claims that post-mortem studies have played a central part in our understanding of the origins of schizophrenia" "Disadvantages of PME - CORRECT ANSWER - factors of death can influence the post-mortem brain - post mortum delay, drug treatment and age are confonunding variables - approach is retrospective and therefore researcher cannot follow up anything" “Wilhelm Wundt - CORRECT ANSWER - First Psychologist - First Lab in Germany - Experimental Conditions - Structuralism and Introspection" "Introspection - CORRECT ANSWER Person Gains knowledge about their mental state by examining their conscious thoughts and feelings" "Empiricism - CORRECT ANSWER Knowledge is derived from sensory experience, characterised by the use of the scientific method" "Scientific Method - CORRECT ANSWER The investigative methods that are: - Objective - Systematic - Reliable" "Evaluation of Wundt - CORRECT ANSWER - methods were unreliable as it relied on non-observable - Introspection is not accurate because people are often unaware of are behaviours" "Evaluation of the Scientific Approach - CORRECT ANSWER - its objective and systematic - Rely on determinism - Self corrective - Create non-naturalistic environments - Human behaviour is not always observable to the rules of science" "Operant Conditioning - CORRECT ANSWER Skinner - Learning through reinforcement or punishment, a behaviour is more likely if followed by a desirable concequence" "Positive Reinforcement - CORRECT ANSWER Behaviour Produces a response that is desirable" "Negative Reinforcement - CORRECT ANSWER Doing something to stop unpleasant response" "Reinforcement - CORRECT ANSWER Strengthening a response" "Punishment - CORRECT ANSWER An unpleasant consequence following a behaviour" "Features of Classical Conditioning - CORRECT ANSWER - Scheduling reinforcement makes it stronger - Punishment" "Evaluation of Classical Conditioning - CORRECT ANSWER - Applications in treatment of phobias - Animal Research cannot be generalised to humans because they have different needs to learn" "Evaluation of Operant Conditioning - CORRECT ANSWER - Use of experimental method - Animal Research cannot be generalised to humans" "Modelling - CORRECT ANSWER Individuals learn behaviour be observing others" "Imitation - CORRECT ANSWER Copying a models behaviour" "Identification - CORRECT ANSWER Individual adopts attitudes and behaviours of a model because they want to be like them" "Evaluation of the Cognitive Approach - CORRECT ANSWER - Applications in social cognition, dysfunctional behaviour - Scientific - Computer models are to simplistic for a human mind, and at the same time suggest that we never forget or never make mistakes - ignores emotion and motivation (tells us how not why) - Lack ecological validity" "Biological Approach - CORRECT ANSWER Views humans as biological organisms and provides biological explanations for all psychological functioning" "Genes - CORRECT ANSWER A part of the chromosome that carries genetic information" "Genotype - CORRECT ANSWER The genetic make-up of an individual" "Phenotype - CORRECT ANSWER The observable characteristics of an individual" "Evolution - CORRECT ANSWER Change is genetic make-up of a population over time" "NeuroChemistry - CORRECT ANSWER How chemical and neural processes associate with the nervous system" "Nervous System - CORRECT ANSWER Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord) and the Peripheral Nervous System (somatic and autonomous systems) carries impulses around the body" "Evaluation of the humanistic approach - CORRECT ANSWER - Maslow's Hierarchy is linked to economical development, countries with lower needs had lower development - Research support for conditions of worth (adolescents) - Fails to establish causal variables - unrealistic view of human nature as it suggest we all want to be good - Cultural differences in hierarchy of needs e.g. in china love is the first stage but here it is needs" "Confounding Variables - CORRECT ANSWER A variable that is not the IV but changes the depending variable" "Control - CORRECT ANSWER The extent a variable is held constant" "External Validity - CORRECT ANSWER The degree research can be generalised" "Extranous Variables - CORRECT ANSWER Nuisance variables that makes it difficult to detect changes in experiments" "Internal Validity - CORRECT ANSWER The degree observed effects was die to experimental manipulation rather than confounding variables" "Mundane Realism - CORRECT ANSWER How study mirrors real life" "Validity - CORRECT ANSWER how close you are to measuring what you want to measure" "Directional Hypothesis - CORRECT ANSWER States direction of predicted difference e.g. People who do homework without tv produce better results than those who don't" "Non-Directional Hypothesis - CORRECT ANSWER Predicts simply that there is a difference e.g. People who do homework with the TV produce different results from those who dont" "Matched Pairs Design - CORRECT ANSWER Two groups in which each participant is matched with a similar version of them in the other group" "Limitations of Matched Pairs - CORRECT ANSWER Time-consuming and difficult to match It is not possible to match all characteristics Can be solved by using twins of conducting piolet studies" "Field Experiment - CORRECT ANSWER A controlled experiment outside a lab" "Lab Experiment - CORRECT ANSWER An experiment in a controlled setting" "Evaluation of Field experiments - CORRECT ANSWER - Control over variables - Low ecological Validity" "Evaluation of Lab experiments - CORRECT ANSWER - more natural - may lack realism - ethical issues with deception - extraneous variables" "Natural Experiments - CORRECT ANSWER The IV occurs naturally and the DV is tested e.g. The IV of romanian orphans occurred and it was tested but we did not create the romaninan orphans" "Hypothesis Testing - CORRECT ANSWER make and test an educated guess about a problem/solution" "Theory Construction - CORRECT ANSWER A collection of principles that help us explain observations and integrate facts. This is the process of assembling a theory into coherent wholes." "Paradigms in Research - CORRECT ANSWER an overall belief system or way of viewing the nature of reality and the basis of knowledge" "Paradigm shifts - CORRECT ANSWER Shifts in scientific thinking that occur when the majority of scientists in a field or related fields agree that a new explanation or theory is better than the old one." "Primary Data - CORRECT ANSWER information collected for the specific purpose at hand" "Secondary Data - CORRECT ANSWER information that already exists somewhere, having been collected for another purpose" "Quantitative Data - CORRECT ANSWER numerical data" "Content Coding - CORRECT ANSWER a technique used by researchers to analyse specific content delivered in the mass media so as to enable the scientific study of that content's effect on audiences" "Thematic Analysis. - CORRECT ANSWER a method of categorizing data into thematic categories" "Effect Size - CORRECT ANSWER the magnitude of a relationship between two or more variables" "Investigator Effect - CORRECT ANSWER Cues from the investigator that encourage certain behaviours" "Indirect Investigator Effects - CORRECT ANSWER The investigator designs the experiment to make a result more likely" "Dealing with demand / investigator effects - CORRECT ANSWER - single/double blind - experiemental realism, make task engaging" "experimental realism - CORRECT ANSWER Experiment is made engaging so participants pay attention to that instead of realising they are being observed" "Opportunity Sample - CORRECT ANSWER Recruit People who are most convenient e.g. waling by" "Evaluation of Opportunity Sample - CORRECT ANSWER - Easy - Bias because you are drawn to certain people" "Random Sample - CORRECT ANSWER Randomly pick people using the lottery technique (picking names out of a hat) or a random number table (population is assigned a number and you randomly pick it) of a computer generated random picker" "Evaluation of random sampling - CORRECT ANSWER - Unbias - Need a list of all participants" "Deception - CORRECT ANSWER A participant is not told true aims of the study as it could alter there behaviour" "Confidentiality - CORRECT ANSWER Personal Information about participants should be protected" "Privacy - CORRECT ANSWER Participants should not be observed in certain situations e.g. taking a shower" "Protection from harm - CORRECT ANSWER participants should not experience physical or psychological harm" "Right to withdraw - CORRECT ANSWER At any point a participant should be able to leave the study" "Ethical issues - CORRECT ANSWER - informed Consent - Deception - The right to withdraw - Protection from harm - Confidentiality - Privacy" "Ethical Guidlines - CORRECT ANSWER BPS guidelines for psychologists to follow about their studies" "Cost-benefit analysis - CORRECT ANSWER A systematic approach to estimate the positive and negatives of research" "Ethics Committees - CORRECT ANSWER A group of research institutions that must approve a study before it begins" "How to Deal with informed consent - CORRECT ANSWER - formal agreement - Presumptive consent - if participants are given full nature of study it could alter behaviour" "Presumptive consent - CORRECT ANSWER Asking a group of people not in the study if they would mind being deceived by certain things" "Evaluation of self report techniques - CORRECT ANSWER - social desirability bias, people may lie to make them seem better - people cannot always word how they feel" "Evaluation of questionnaire - CORRECT ANSWER - Take time to design - Can be distributed to a large number of people - people may feel more willing to reveal information to paper rather than person - Data collection is limited to people who can read/write - repeatable because questions are standardised" "Evaluation of structured interview - CORRECT ANSWER - repeatable because questions are standardised - different interviewers behave differently giving low internal validity - interviewer bias" "Evaluation of unstructured interview - CORRECT ANSWER - more detailed information - interviewers need more skill to spot what to ask about - questions may lack objectivity" "Questionnaire construction - CORRECT ANSWER 1. clarity of questions 2. no bias/ leading questions 3. questions need to be able to be analysed" "How to reference - CORRECT ANSWER Author, date, title, edition, city, publisher" "The spinal cord - CORRECT ANSWER To relay information between the brain and the rest of the body" "Cerebrum - CORRECT ANSWER Controlling motor skills, balance and muscle movement" "Diencephalon - CORRECT ANSWER Contains the thalamus and the hypothalamus" "thalamus - CORRECT ANSWER relay station for nerve impulses, routing them to the appropriate parts of the brain" "hypothalamus - CORRECT ANSWER regulates body temperature, hunger and thirst, also acts as a link between the endocrine and nervous system" "Brain stem - CORRECT ANSWER Regulates automatic functions essential to life" "Divisions of the nervous system - CORRECT ANSWER " "The somatic nervous system - CORRECT ANSWER Part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for carrying sensory and motor information" "The autonomic nervous system - CORRECT ANSWER Part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for involuntary brain activities like breathing and heartbeat" "The sympathetic nervous system - CORRECT ANSWER Part of the autonomic nervous system responsible to help us deal with emergencies like fight of flight and prepares the body for threat, releases energy" "The parasympathetic nervous system - CORRECT ANSWER Part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for relaxing them once again after an emergency involving a fight of flight has passed, increased blood flow and breathing" "Synaptic Transmission - CORRECT ANSWER - Information is passed down the axon of the neuron as an electrical impulse known as an action potential. - Once the action potential reaches the end of the axon it must cross over the synaptic gap. - At the end of the neuron (in the axon terminal) are the synaptic vesicles which contain chemical messengers, known as neurotransmitters. - When the electrical impulse (action potential) reaches these synaptic vesicles, they release their contents of neurotransmitters. - Neurotransmitters then carry the signal across the synaptic gap. - They bind to receptor sites on the post-synaptic cell that then become activated. - Once the receptors have been activated, they either produce excitatory or inhibitory effects on the post-synaptic cell, making the post-synaptic cell more or less likely to fire." "Excitatory Neurotransmitters - CORRECT ANSWER On switches, increase the liklihood that an excitatory signal is sent to the postsynaptic cell, which is then more likely to fire" "Excitation and inhibition's effect on synaptic transmission - CORRECT ANSWER - Neurotransmitters can be excitatory or inhibitory which makes a post synaptic neuron more or less likely to fire - There effects are summed, an excitatory and inhibitory will cancel but an excitatory and another excitatory will have a net effect" "Inhibitory Neurotransmitters - CORRECT ANSWER off switches, decrease the likelihood of a postsynaptic cell firing, they calm the body" "Broca's aphasia - CORRECT ANSWER condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly" "Wernicke's aphasia - CORRECT ANSWER condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language" "Circadian Rhythm - CORRECT ANSWER the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle" "Examples of circadian Rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER sleep/wake cycle body temperature blood pressure blood sugar level" "The sleep-wake Cycle - CORRECT ANSWER a daily, naturally occurring 24-hour circadian rhythm of sleep and wake states regulated by a biological clock The homostatic system keeps us awake till we run out of energy Circadian rhythms keep up awake as long as there is daylight" "Core body temperature cycle - CORRECT ANSWER A circadian rhythm - Temperature is lowest at about 4:30am and highest at about 6pm. - Sleep occurs when temperature drops, and waking up occurs when the body starts to warm. - A small drop in temperature occurs at 4pm which is why people feel sleepy in the afternoon" "sleep Hormone Production Cycle - CORRECT ANSWER A circadian rhythm - Melatonin production from the pineal gland is at peak during hours of darkness - As light increases melatonin production drops - Melatonin encourages feelings of sleep" "Evaluation of Endogenous Pacemakers - CORRECT ANSWER - Damiola, other endogenous pacemakers not just master clock (SCN) - Morgan hamsters with abnormal circadian rhythms could have a normal circadian rhythm imposed on them from a normal hamster's translated SCN - Generalising from animal studies and ethics of DeCoursey especially" "Evaluations of exogenous zeitgebers - CORRECT ANSWER - blind people studies, blind people can still have circadian rhythms, suggesting their melasopin to the SCN is still intact - Burgess et al found exposure to bright light prior to an east-west flight decreased jetlag - Vetter et al found light is the dominant zeitgeber" "Hughes - CORRECT ANSWER - four participants stationed in the British Antarctic station - After 3 months of darkness cortisol level patterns had changed with peak levels being at noon, rather when men awoke - This suggests different areas of the world with different light levels are responsible for circadian hormone release" "Plasticity - CORRECT ANSWER the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganising after damage or by building new pathways based on experience" "Axonal sprouting - CORRECT ANSWER The growth of new nerve endings which connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways" "Examples of how the brain can be changed through plasticity - CORRECT ANSWER Life experience, new experiences create new neural pathways, where as rarely used nerves die, and this increases with age Video games, make many different complex cognitive and motor demands Meditation, Tibetan Monks produce increased gamma waves which coordinate neuron activity"