Comprehensive Psychology Notes:
Cognitive Topics
Section 1: Memory
1.1 Multi-Store Model of Memory
Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), this model explains how memory flows through
three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). It
emphasizes the importance of rehearsal in transferring information to LTM.
1.2 Working Memory Model
Developed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), this model proposes that STM is not a single store
but consists of multiple components: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial
sketchpad, and episodic buffer.
1.3 Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
Encoding: How information is transformed into a memory. Storage: How it’s retained.
Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed.
1.4 Forgetting Theories
Includes interference theory, retrieval failure due to lack of cues, and decay theory. Each
theory explains why we sometimes fail to retrieve information.
Section 2: Learning
2.1 Classical Conditioning
First described by Ivan Pavlov, this learning process occurs when a neutral stimulus
becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior.
2.2 Operant Conditioning
Developed by B.F. Skinner, this learning method involves reinforcement and punishment to
increase or decrease behavior.
2.3 Observational Learning (Social Learning Theory)
Proposed by Albert Bandura, this theory emphasizes learning through observation and
imitation of others, including the concept of vicarious reinforcement.
Cognitive Topics
Section 1: Memory
1.1 Multi-Store Model of Memory
Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), this model explains how memory flows through
three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). It
emphasizes the importance of rehearsal in transferring information to LTM.
1.2 Working Memory Model
Developed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), this model proposes that STM is not a single store
but consists of multiple components: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial
sketchpad, and episodic buffer.
1.3 Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
Encoding: How information is transformed into a memory. Storage: How it’s retained.
Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed.
1.4 Forgetting Theories
Includes interference theory, retrieval failure due to lack of cues, and decay theory. Each
theory explains why we sometimes fail to retrieve information.
Section 2: Learning
2.1 Classical Conditioning
First described by Ivan Pavlov, this learning process occurs when a neutral stimulus
becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior.
2.2 Operant Conditioning
Developed by B.F. Skinner, this learning method involves reinforcement and punishment to
increase or decrease behavior.
2.3 Observational Learning (Social Learning Theory)
Proposed by Albert Bandura, this theory emphasizes learning through observation and
imitation of others, including the concept of vicarious reinforcement.
