1.Theories of religion
Outline and explain two definitions of religion (10)
Substantive
P - One definition of religion is the substantive definition.
E - This focuses on the content of religious beliefs and says there must be a belief in God or the
supernatural. This makes this definition exclusive as it draws a clear line between religious and non
religious beliefs. Religions that fall under this definition include the Abrahamic religions of Islam,
Christianity and Judaism because they all have the belief in one God.
E - However the definition has been accused of Western bias. Giddens argues some religions aren’t
focused on the supernatural like Buddhism so the substantive definition is too restrictive by not
acknowledging some beliefs and practices just because they don’t have Western idea or belief in
God.
Functional
P - Another definition is the functional definition.
E - Religion is defined by the social or psychological functions it performs for individuals. It serves to
answer questions like what is the meaning of life? This definition is inclusive of beliefs that don’t
believe in God or the supernatural. Buddhism would fall under this as it performs psychological
functions for its members such as helping people become more self aware and think clearly.
Durkheim defines a religion by its contribution to social integration rather than a belief in God.
E - However this function can be fulfilled outside of religion. For example, collective chanting at
football matches may give individuals a sense of integration but that doesn’t make it a religion.
Therefore this definition can be seen as too inclusive as anything can be classified as a religion as
long as it fulfils a function.
Constructivist
P - Another definition of religion is the constructivist definition.
E - Taking an interpretivist approach, it focuses on how individual members of society define religion
for themselves based on their own needs or desires. Religious beliefs are a social construct created
to explain the unexplainable or bring communities together for a cause or justify power inequalities.
Social constructionists are interested in how definitions are constructed, challenged and fought over
like Scientology. Aldridge states that Scientology is a religion for its members but several
governments deny its legal status and have tried to ban it. Therefore religion can be seen as
influenced by those in power to define it.
E - However, there is no single universal definition as religion means different things to different
people and groups which makes it impossible to generalise the nature of religion.
1
,Outline and explain two functions of religion (10)
Functionalist
Creating a collective conscience
E - Durkheim argued that a key feature of religion is the fundamental distinction between the sacred
and profane. Sacred are forbidden things of taboo that inspire awe whereas profane are the ordinary
things of no special significance. Sacred symbols represent the collective conscience as they evoke
powerful feelings since they represent something greater. Similarly, shared rituals like weddings,
funerals and hymn singing also reinforce the collective conscience and maintain social integration by
binding individuals together to a single moral community. It reminds them of the power of society
and makes individuals feel part of something greater which strengthens them to face life’s trials. For
example, the Arunta Australian Aboriginal tribe come together to perform rituals and worship totem
poles which symbolises the clan's origins. This reinforces group solidarity and a sense of belonging
which improves cooperation in society.
E - However, Mestrovic argues that this doesn’t apply to postmodern society because increasing
diversity means there’s a broken collective conscience and so there’s no single shared value system
for religion to reinforce.
Cognitive functions
E - Durkheim argues that religion is the source of intellect and the origin of concepts we need for
reasoning and communication in the world. For example it provides the basic categories of time,
space and causation with ideas about a creator bringing the world into being at the beginning of
time. This creates a shared understanding of the world.
E - However, Bruce argues that in a postmodern society we no longer look to religion to understand
the world with a technological worldview.
Helping individuals cope with stress
E - Malinowski argues religion promotes social solidarity by performing psychological functions for
individuals. This happens either when the outcome is uncontrollable or during life crises like death
and puberty. For example funeral rituals reinforce solidarity in survivors and immorality comforts the
bereaved. It also helps cope with the emotional stress of the afterlife by offering hope. By believing
in a higher power or supernatural forces, individuals can feel safe and reassured that they are
protected from harm.
E - This function recognises a positive role of religion. However with secularisation, religion is no
longer used in crises as instead of turning to God and religion, people turn to friends and therapists.
Legitimating central values and providing a central source of knowing
E - Parsons argues that religion also has two essential functions it performs in a modern society. It
creates and legitimates society’s central values. For example, Protestantism has sacralised the core
American values of individualism in the USA, by making them sacred it promotes value consensus
and social stability because individuals are more likely to conform to societal norms if they are seen
as sacred and divinely ordained.
E - Religion is also the primary source of meaning as it answers ultimate questions about the human
condition which may otherwise undermine our commitment like why do the good suffer? This
provides a sense of comfort and reassurance, as individuals can find answers to these questions that
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, help them make sense of the world. For example, the concept of a test of faith that will be rewarded
in heaven can help individuals adjust to bad events and maintain stability.
E - However it neglects the negative aspects of religion like how it can be a source of oppression for
the poor or women.
Creating civil religion
E - A civil religion is a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society and unifies over all. One
example of a civil religion is the American way of life which includes loyalty to the nation state and a
belief in God. This is expressed by the pledge of allegiance and the national anthem. Bellah saw
religion as a way to unify society, especially multi faith ones like the USA.
E - However not all identify with the civil religion. For example Muslims pledge allegiance to Allah.
Some argue that it’s not a religion as it’s not based on a belief in the supernatural.
Marxists
Legitimating inequality
E - Marxists argue that religion is an ideological weapon that is used to legitimise the suffering of the
proletariat and distorts their perception of reality to serve the interest of the ruling class. Lenin
describes religion as a ‘spiritual gin’ that confuses the w/c and keeps them in their place by creating a
mystical fog that hides reality. It misleads them into thinking their suffering is virtuous and will be
rewarded in the afterlife. For example, the phrase ‘it's easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a
needle than for a rich man to enter heaven’ creates a false consciousness and gives the poor a
distorted view of reality preventing them from changing their situation.
E - Religion is also used to justify the position and privilege of the ruling class by making their
position appear divinely ordained. For example the 16th Century idea of the Divine Rights of Kings
was the belief that Kings are God's representatives on earth and disobedience to them was both
illegal and a sinful challenge to God.
E - However Marxists ignore the positive functions of religion like psychological adjustment to
misfortune.
Dulling the pain of exploitation
E - Marxists argue another function of religion is to act as an opiate that dulls the pain of exploitation
and alienation. Peak alienation is in the factory repeating the same meaningless unskilled task.
Workers don’t own what they produce or control the production process and so can’t express their
true creative selves. Religion arises out of this suffering and acts as a consolation for it but fails to
deal with the actual cause of exploitation which is because of capitalism.
E - However, Althusser rejects alienation as unscientific due to the idea that humans have a true self.
Feminists
Justifying the patriarchy
E - Feminists argue that religion is a patriarchal institution that reflects women's inequalities and
functions as a patriarchal ideology that legitimises female subordination. This is done through many
aspects of religion.
Religious organisations are mainly male dominated even though more women than men participate.
For example, Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women from becoming priests. Armstrong
argues this exclusion is evidence of women's marginalisation. However, she argues that women have
3
Outline and explain two definitions of religion (10)
Substantive
P - One definition of religion is the substantive definition.
E - This focuses on the content of religious beliefs and says there must be a belief in God or the
supernatural. This makes this definition exclusive as it draws a clear line between religious and non
religious beliefs. Religions that fall under this definition include the Abrahamic religions of Islam,
Christianity and Judaism because they all have the belief in one God.
E - However the definition has been accused of Western bias. Giddens argues some religions aren’t
focused on the supernatural like Buddhism so the substantive definition is too restrictive by not
acknowledging some beliefs and practices just because they don’t have Western idea or belief in
God.
Functional
P - Another definition is the functional definition.
E - Religion is defined by the social or psychological functions it performs for individuals. It serves to
answer questions like what is the meaning of life? This definition is inclusive of beliefs that don’t
believe in God or the supernatural. Buddhism would fall under this as it performs psychological
functions for its members such as helping people become more self aware and think clearly.
Durkheim defines a religion by its contribution to social integration rather than a belief in God.
E - However this function can be fulfilled outside of religion. For example, collective chanting at
football matches may give individuals a sense of integration but that doesn’t make it a religion.
Therefore this definition can be seen as too inclusive as anything can be classified as a religion as
long as it fulfils a function.
Constructivist
P - Another definition of religion is the constructivist definition.
E - Taking an interpretivist approach, it focuses on how individual members of society define religion
for themselves based on their own needs or desires. Religious beliefs are a social construct created
to explain the unexplainable or bring communities together for a cause or justify power inequalities.
Social constructionists are interested in how definitions are constructed, challenged and fought over
like Scientology. Aldridge states that Scientology is a religion for its members but several
governments deny its legal status and have tried to ban it. Therefore religion can be seen as
influenced by those in power to define it.
E - However, there is no single universal definition as religion means different things to different
people and groups which makes it impossible to generalise the nature of religion.
1
,Outline and explain two functions of religion (10)
Functionalist
Creating a collective conscience
E - Durkheim argued that a key feature of religion is the fundamental distinction between the sacred
and profane. Sacred are forbidden things of taboo that inspire awe whereas profane are the ordinary
things of no special significance. Sacred symbols represent the collective conscience as they evoke
powerful feelings since they represent something greater. Similarly, shared rituals like weddings,
funerals and hymn singing also reinforce the collective conscience and maintain social integration by
binding individuals together to a single moral community. It reminds them of the power of society
and makes individuals feel part of something greater which strengthens them to face life’s trials. For
example, the Arunta Australian Aboriginal tribe come together to perform rituals and worship totem
poles which symbolises the clan's origins. This reinforces group solidarity and a sense of belonging
which improves cooperation in society.
E - However, Mestrovic argues that this doesn’t apply to postmodern society because increasing
diversity means there’s a broken collective conscience and so there’s no single shared value system
for religion to reinforce.
Cognitive functions
E - Durkheim argues that religion is the source of intellect and the origin of concepts we need for
reasoning and communication in the world. For example it provides the basic categories of time,
space and causation with ideas about a creator bringing the world into being at the beginning of
time. This creates a shared understanding of the world.
E - However, Bruce argues that in a postmodern society we no longer look to religion to understand
the world with a technological worldview.
Helping individuals cope with stress
E - Malinowski argues religion promotes social solidarity by performing psychological functions for
individuals. This happens either when the outcome is uncontrollable or during life crises like death
and puberty. For example funeral rituals reinforce solidarity in survivors and immorality comforts the
bereaved. It also helps cope with the emotional stress of the afterlife by offering hope. By believing
in a higher power or supernatural forces, individuals can feel safe and reassured that they are
protected from harm.
E - This function recognises a positive role of religion. However with secularisation, religion is no
longer used in crises as instead of turning to God and religion, people turn to friends and therapists.
Legitimating central values and providing a central source of knowing
E - Parsons argues that religion also has two essential functions it performs in a modern society. It
creates and legitimates society’s central values. For example, Protestantism has sacralised the core
American values of individualism in the USA, by making them sacred it promotes value consensus
and social stability because individuals are more likely to conform to societal norms if they are seen
as sacred and divinely ordained.
E - Religion is also the primary source of meaning as it answers ultimate questions about the human
condition which may otherwise undermine our commitment like why do the good suffer? This
provides a sense of comfort and reassurance, as individuals can find answers to these questions that
2
, help them make sense of the world. For example, the concept of a test of faith that will be rewarded
in heaven can help individuals adjust to bad events and maintain stability.
E - However it neglects the negative aspects of religion like how it can be a source of oppression for
the poor or women.
Creating civil religion
E - A civil religion is a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society and unifies over all. One
example of a civil religion is the American way of life which includes loyalty to the nation state and a
belief in God. This is expressed by the pledge of allegiance and the national anthem. Bellah saw
religion as a way to unify society, especially multi faith ones like the USA.
E - However not all identify with the civil religion. For example Muslims pledge allegiance to Allah.
Some argue that it’s not a religion as it’s not based on a belief in the supernatural.
Marxists
Legitimating inequality
E - Marxists argue that religion is an ideological weapon that is used to legitimise the suffering of the
proletariat and distorts their perception of reality to serve the interest of the ruling class. Lenin
describes religion as a ‘spiritual gin’ that confuses the w/c and keeps them in their place by creating a
mystical fog that hides reality. It misleads them into thinking their suffering is virtuous and will be
rewarded in the afterlife. For example, the phrase ‘it's easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a
needle than for a rich man to enter heaven’ creates a false consciousness and gives the poor a
distorted view of reality preventing them from changing their situation.
E - Religion is also used to justify the position and privilege of the ruling class by making their
position appear divinely ordained. For example the 16th Century idea of the Divine Rights of Kings
was the belief that Kings are God's representatives on earth and disobedience to them was both
illegal and a sinful challenge to God.
E - However Marxists ignore the positive functions of religion like psychological adjustment to
misfortune.
Dulling the pain of exploitation
E - Marxists argue another function of religion is to act as an opiate that dulls the pain of exploitation
and alienation. Peak alienation is in the factory repeating the same meaningless unskilled task.
Workers don’t own what they produce or control the production process and so can’t express their
true creative selves. Religion arises out of this suffering and acts as a consolation for it but fails to
deal with the actual cause of exploitation which is because of capitalism.
E - However, Althusser rejects alienation as unscientific due to the idea that humans have a true self.
Feminists
Justifying the patriarchy
E - Feminists argue that religion is a patriarchal institution that reflects women's inequalities and
functions as a patriarchal ideology that legitimises female subordination. This is done through many
aspects of religion.
Religious organisations are mainly male dominated even though more women than men participate.
For example, Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women from becoming priests. Armstrong
argues this exclusion is evidence of women's marginalisation. However, she argues that women have
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