ALL HESI A2 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY EXAMS 2025 REAL EXAMS |GUARANTEED PASS |COMPLETE (BEST ANSWERS)

ALL HESI A2 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY EXAMS 2025 REAL EXAMS |GUARANTEED PASS |COMPLETE (BEST ANSWERS) "What is meiosis? - CORRECT ANSWER The cell division that takes place in the gonads, i.e. the ovaries and testes." "What two layers compose the skin? - CORRECT ANSWER Epidermis and dermis." "What is the epidermis? - CORRECT ANSWER The outermost protective layer of dead keratinized epithelial cells." "What is the dermis? - CORRECT ANSWER The underlying layer of connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, and the associated skin tissues." "What are the layers of the epidermis? - CORRECT ANSWER Corneum Lucidum Granulosum Germivatum ( basale & spinosum) Mnemonic: Candy Lions Growl Great." "What are the functions of the skeletal system? - CORRECT ANSWER Support, movement, blood cell formation, protection of internal organs, detoxification, muscle attachment, mineral storage. *A MIME BATHED SEALS SINGING "MY PONY"*" "How are bones classified? - CORRECT ANSWER By shape. Long Short flat irregular sesamoid *LEMURS SING SALSA FOR INDIANS*" "What bone structures are in the ossicles (ears) ? - CORRECT ANSWER malleus, incus, stapes" "How many bones make the skeletal column? - CORRECT ANSWER 33 bones" "How many cervical vertebrae in the skeletal column? - CORRECT ANSWER 7" "How many thoracic vertebrae in the skeletal column? - CORRECT ANSWER 12" "How many lumbar vertebrae? - CORRECT ANSWER 5" "How many sacral vertebrae? - CORRECT ANSWER 5" "How many coccygeal vertebrae? - CORRECT ANSWER 1-the tailbone" "What makes up the final part of the axial skeleton? - CORRECT ANSWER the thorax the sternum 12 pairs of ribs." "What is the function of the antagonist? - CORRECT ANSWER The muscles that executes the opposite movement of the prime mover." "What are synergists? - CORRECT ANSWER Muscles that work together with the prime mover." "How are muscles classified? - CORRECT ANSWER According to the movements they elicit" "What are the two classifications of muscles? - CORRECT ANSWER Flexors and extensors." "What is the function of flexors? - CORRECT ANSWER Reduce the angle at the joint." "What is the function of extensors? - CORRECT ANSWER Increase the angle at the joint." "What is the function of an abductor muscle? - CORRECT ANSWER Draw a limb away from the midline of the body." "What is the function of adductors? - CORRECT ANSWER Return the limb back toward the body." "What makes up the nervous system? - CORRECT ANSWER The brain, spinal cord & nerves." "What are the functional units of the nervous system? - CORRECT ANSWER The neuron." "What are the main parts of the neuron? - CORRECT ANSWER Cell body Axon Dendrites" "What is the function of the dendrites? - CORRECT ANSWER Transmit impulses toward the cell body" "What is the function of the axon? - CORRECT ANSWER Transmit impulses away from the body" "What two systems make up the nervous system? - CORRECT ANSWER CNS-Central nervous system PNS-Peripheral nervous system" "What makes up the PNS? - CORRECT ANSWER All the nerves that transmit information to and from the CNS." "What is the function of sensory (afferent) neurons? - CORRECT ANSWER Transmit information to and from the CNS." "What are the two major groups of hormones? - CORRECT ANSWER Steroid and nonsteroid" "What is the effect of steroid hormones? - CORRECT ANSWER Enter the cell and have a direct effect on the DNA of the nucleus." "What is the function of some nonsteroid hormones? - CORRECT ANSWER Serve as protein hormones." "Why are the hormones of the adenohypophysis called *tropic hormones*? - CORRECT ANSWER Because they act mainly on other endocrine glands." "What are the tropic hormones? - CORRECT ANSWER STH GH ACTH TSH FSH LH" "What is the STH or GH hormone? - CORRECT ANSWER Growth Hormone" "What is the ACTH hormone? - CORRECT ANSWER Adrenocorticotropic hormone" "What is the TSH hormone? - CORRECT ANSWER Thyroid-stimulating hormone" "What is the FSH hormone? - CORRECT ANSWER Follicle-stimulating hormone" "What is the LH hormone? - CORRECT ANSWER Luteinizing hormone" "What hormones are released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary? - CORRECT ANSWER Oxytocin (labor hormone) ADH-Antidiuretic hormone." "What are some important endocrine glands? - CORRECT ANSWER Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenals Pancreas Gonads (ovaries & testes)" "What materials make up the blood? - CORRECT ANSWER 55% plasma 45% formed elements: erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets." "Where are all the elements in blood formed? - CORRECT ANSWER Red bone marrow." "What are erythrocytes transformed for? - CORRECT ANSWER The transport of O2." "What is most O2 bound to in erythrocytes? - CORRECT ANSWER The pigmented protein hemoglobin." "How are the five types of leukocytes distinguished? - CORRECT ANSWER Size Appearance of nucleus Staining properties Presence or absence of visible cytoplasmic granules" "Which white blood cells are active in phagocytosis? - CORRECT ANSWER Neutrophils and monocytes" "Which white blood cells make antibodies? - CORRECT ANSWER Lymphocytes" "In which process are platelets active? - CORRECT ANSWER Blood clotting" "What is the function of blood? - CORRECT ANSWER O2 transport Carry CO2 and metabolic waste away" "What is found in 10% of plasma? - CORRECT ANSWER Proteins Ions Nutrients Waste products Hormones All these dissolve or suspend in H2O." "Where is the heart beat initiated? - CORRECT ANSWER By the sinoatrial node and transmitted along a conduction system through the myocardium" "What is a cardiac cycle? - CORRECT ANSWER The period from the end of the next ventricular contraction to the end of the next ventricular contraction." "What is the name for the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle? - CORRECT ANSWER Systole" "What is the name for the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle? - CORRECT ANSWER Diastole" "What structures are included in the vascular system? - CORRECT ANSWER ateries veins capillaries" "Where do arteries carry blood? - CORRECT ANSWER Toward the heart" "Where do veins carry blood? - CORRECT ANSWER Away from the heart" "What occurs in the capillaries? - CORRECT ANSWER Blood and surrounding tissues exchange water, nutrients, and waste products." "Where do the systemic arteries begin? - CORRECT ANSWER With the aorta, which sends branches to all parts of the body" "What happens to arteries as the go further from the heart? - CORRECT ANSWER They become thinner" "What is the name for the smallest arteries? - CORRECT ANSWER Arterioles" "What are the names of the veins parallel to the arteries? - CORRECT ANSWER Carry the same name as the arteries" "Which are the largest veins? - CORRECT ANSWER Superior and inferior venae cavae" "How is the structure of the walls of arteries? - CORRECT ANSWER Thick and elastic in order to carry blood under high pressure" "What are causes vasoconstriction and vasodilation? - CORRECT ANSWER The contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle in the arterial walls." "What does the contraction of smooth muscle in the arterial walls influence? - CORRECT ANSWER Blood pressure and blood distribution to tissues" "How is the structure of the veins in comparison to the structure of arteries? - CORRECT ANSWER Thinner and less elastic, as they carry blood under lower pressure" "What are the components of the respiratory system? - CORRECT ANSWER Nose Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi lungs muscles surrounding ribs" "What occurs during exhalation? - CORRECT ANSWER The lungs recoil as the respiratory muscles relax and the thorax decreases in size." "When is oxygen released from hemoglobin? - CORRECT ANSWER As the concentration of O2 drops in tissues" "What happens to carbon dioxide in red blood cells? - CORRECT ANSWER Some is carried in solutions or bound to proteins in the blood. Most is converted to carbonic anhydrase" "What does the changing of carbon to carbonic anyhydrase release? - CORRECT ANSWER Hydrogen ions, which regulate blood pH" "Which structures make the alimentary canal? - CORRECT ANSWER mouth pharynx esophagus stomach small intestine large intestine rectum anus" "What are the accessory organs of the alimentary canal? - CORRECT ANSWER Liver Pancreas Gallbladder" "What structures produce saliva? - CORRECT ANSWER Three pairs of salivary glands" "What is the enzyme in saliva that starts complex carb digestion? - CORRECT ANSWER Amylase" "What are the four main layers of the digestive system? - CORRECT ANSWER From innermost to outer: Mucous membrane Submucous layer Muscular layer Serous layer" "What substance is secreted by the stomach when food enters it? - CORRECT ANSWER Hydrochloric acid" "What is chyme? - CORRECT ANSWER Soupy substance resulting from the stomach churning and mixing the bolus." "What happens to chyme? - CORRECT ANSWER The stomach moves it into the small intestine" "What occurs in the small intestine? - CORRECT ANSWER Digestion & absorption of food." "What substances help digest food in the small intestine? - CORRECT ANSWER enzymes from the small intestine and pancreas and bile from the liver." "Besides enzymes, what other substances are contributed by the pancreas? - CORRECT ANSWER water to dilute the chyme bicarbonate ions to neutralize the acid from the stomach" "What are the 3 major regions of the small intestine? - CORRECT ANSWER The duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum" "Where are nutrients absorbed? - CORRECT ANSWER Through the walls of the small intestine." "What structures make up the urinary system? - CORRECT ANSWER 2 kidneys 2 ureters bladder urethra" "What are the functional units of the kidney? - CORRECT ANSWER The nephrons" "What is the function of the nephrons? - CORRECT ANSWER Filter material out of blood brought through the kidneys by the renal artery." "In which renal structure does filtration actually occur? - CORRECT ANSWER Bowman's capsule of the nephron." "What force aids filtration? - CORRECT ANSWER Blood pressure aids filtration in the Bowman's capsule" "Which components in glomerular filtrate reenter the blood? - CORRECT ANSWER Components such as water, glucose, and ions, reenter the blood leave the nephron by *diffusion* and reenter the blood." "What is reabsorbed in the tubules of the nephron? - CORRECT ANSWER Water" "What is the final product produced by the nephrons? - CORRECT ANSWER Urine" "What are the two functions of the male and female sex organs? - CORRECT ANSWER Production of gametes and hormones." "What controls the functions of the male and female sex organs? - CORRECT ANSWER Tropic hormones from the pituitary gland." "What is the difference between reproductive activity between men and women? - CORRECT ANSWER Reproductive activity is cyclic in women, but continuous in men." "What forms the gametes? - CORRECT ANSWER Meiosis" "Where does sperm develop in the male sex organs? - CORRECT ANSWER Within the seminiferous tubules of the testes" "Where is testosterone produced? - CORRECT ANSWER In the intersitial cells between the seminiferous tubules." "What does testosterone influence? - CORRECT ANSWER Sperm cell development & secondary male sex characteristics such as body hair & a deep voice." "Where are sperm stored once mature? - CORRECT ANSWER In the epididymis of each testis." "What makes up the pathways for the sperm during ejaculation? - CORRECT ANSWER vas deferens ejaculatory duct urethra" "What lies along the pathways for sperm? - CORRECT ANSWER The glands that produce semen, the transport medium for sperm." "What hormones control testicular activity? - CORRECT ANSWER FSH-regulates sperm production LH (Intersitial cell stimulating hormone)-stimulates testosterone production." "What occurs in the female ovarian follicles every month? - CORRECT ANSWER FSH stimulates eggs to ripen within the follicle." "What is the function of estrogen during the woman's cycle? - CORRECT ANSWER Prepare the endometrium of the uterus for pregnancy." "What occurs at the 14th day of the female cycle? - CORRECT ANSWER A surge of LH is released from the pituitary gland." "What is the function of LH? - CORRECT ANSWER Stimulate ovulation and the conversion of the corpus to the corpus luteum." "What does the corpus luteum secrete? - CORRECT ANSWER Progesterone and estrogen which stimulates the development of the endometrium." "What happens if fertilization occurs? - CORRECT ANSWER The corpus Luteum remains functional." "What occurs when fertilization does not occur? - CORRECT ANSWER The corpus luteum degenerates and menstruation begins." "What occurs to the egg after ovulation? - CORRECT ANSWER The egg is swept to the oviduct or fallopian tube." "What occurs to the fertilized egg? - CORRECT ANSWER The zygote travels to the uterus and is implanted to the endometrium." "What nourishes the fetus in the uterus? - CORRECT ANSWER The embryo is nourished by the placenta." "What forms the placenta? - CORRECT ANSWER Maternal and embryonic tissue." "Other than nourishment, what is another function of the placenta? - CORRECT ANSWER Maintain the endometrium and prepare the breasts for milk production." "Male reproductive organs - CORRECT ANSWER " "Female reproductive organs - CORRECT ANSWER " “What is histology? - CORRECT ANSWER The study of tissues" "What is a tissue? - CORRECT ANSWER A group of cells that act together to perform a specific function." "What are the fundamental tissues? - CORRECT ANSWER Epithelial Connective Muscle Nerve (Elephants Can Make News)" "What is the function of epithelial cells? - CORRECT ANSWER Cover, line, and protect the body and the internal organs." "What is the function of connective tissue? - CORRECT ANSWER Framework of the body. Provides support and structure to organs." "What is neuroglia? - CORRECT ANSWER The neurons and connective tissue cells that compose nerve tissue." "What ability does muscle tissue have? - CORRECT ANSWER Ability to contract and shorten." "What is muscle tissue classified as? - CORRECT ANSWER Voluntary(skeletal muscles) and involuntary(smooth & cardiac)" "What does the protein pigment melanin protect against? - CORRECT ANSWER Radiation from the Sun" "What is the dermis composed of? - CORRECT ANSWER Fibrous connective tissue with nerve endings, blood vessels, sensory nerve endings, hair follicles, and glands." "What are the 2 types of sweat glands? - CORRECT ANSWER ecrine & apocrine" "What do ecrine sweat glands produce? - CORRECT ANSWER Sweat. Regulate body temperature." "What do apocrine sweat glands produce? - CORRECT ANSWER Secretions contain bits of cytoplasm from cells, attracting bacteria that produces body odor." "What do sebaceous glands secrete? - CORRECT ANSWER They secrete sebum through the hair follicles, which lubricates the skin and prevents drying." "What secretion produces oil? - CORRECT ANSWER Holocrine secretion." "What are sebaceous glands prone to during adolescence? - CORRECT ANSWER Becoming clogged and attracting bacteria." "What protein composes the hair and skin? - CORRECT ANSWER Keratin" "What makes the body's framework? - CORRECT ANSWER Bone, cartilage, ligaments & joints." "What is the name for the cells that compose compact bone? - CORRECT ANSWER Osteoblasts" "What occurs to osteoblasts when they become fixed in the dense bone matrix? - CORRECT ANSWER They stop dividing but continue to maintain body tissues as osteocytes." "How many bones make up the axial skeleton? - CORRECT ANSWER 28 bones of the skull. 14-facial, 14-cranium." "How many bones make the facial skeleton? - CORRECT ANSWER 2 nasal bones 2 maxillary bones 2 zygomatic bones 1 mandible 2 palatine bones 1 vomer 2 lacrimal bones 2 inferior nasal bones" "What are the bones of the cranium? - CORRECT ANSWER single occipital frontal ethmoid sphenoid paired parietal temporal ossicles" "What makes up the appendicular skeleton? - CORRECT ANSWER the bones of the girdle and limbs" "What bones make the upper appendicular skeleton? - CORRECT ANSWER pectoral & shoulder girdle clavicle scapula upper extremities" "What are the bones of the arm? - CORRECT ANSWER Humerus Radius Ulna Carpals (wrist bones) Metacarpals (hand bones) phalanges (finger bones)" "What bones make the lower part of the appendicular skeleton? - CORRECT ANSWER The pelvic girdle or os coxae" "What bones make the os coxae? - CORRECT ANSWER fused ilium ischium pubis" "What bones make up the lower extremities? - CORRECT ANSWER femur tibia fibula tarsals (ankle bones) metatarsals (foot bones) phalanges (toe bones)" "How do muscles make movement? - CORRECT ANSWER Contraction in response to nervous stimulation." "What occurs in muscle fibers during contraction? - CORRECT ANSWER Myosin & actin filaments slide together." "What structures make up muscle cells? - CORRECT ANSWER Myofibrils made up of sarcomeres." "What must be present for a muscle cell to contract? - CORRECT ANSWER Calcium and ATP" "What does nervous stimulation from motor neurons cause in the muscles? - CORRECT ANSWER Release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum." "What is the function of calcium in muscle contraction? - CORRECT ANSWER Attach to inhibitory proteins on the actin filaments of the muscle cell, moving them aside. This forms cross bridges between actin and myosin filaments." "Why are the skeletal muscles of the muscular system considered voluntary? - CORRECT ANSWER Because they are under conscious control." "How do skeletal muscles work? - CORRECT ANSWER In pairs: the prime mover and the antagonist." "What is the function of the prime mover? - CORRECT ANSWER The muscle that executes a given movement." "What is the function of Motor (efferent) neurons? - CORRECT ANSWER Transmit nerve impulses away from the CNS toward the effector organs such as muscles, glands, and digestive organs." "What are the 3 major parts of the brain? - CORRECT ANSWER Cerebrum Cerebellum Medulla Oblongata" "What is the function of the cerebrum? - CORRECT ANSWER Movement & sensory input." "What is the function of the cerebellum? - CORRECT ANSWER Muscular coordination." "What is the function of the medulla oblongata? - CORRECT ANSWER Controls vital functions such as respiration and heart rate." "How long is the spinal cord? - CORRECT ANSWER 18 inches long and extends from the base of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebrae." "How many pairs of nerves exit the spinal cord? - CORRECT ANSWER 31 pairs of nerves exit the spinal cord." "What are simple (spinal) reflexes? - CORRECT ANSWER Those in which nerve impulses travel through the spinal cord only and do not reach the brain." "What is the function of the endocrine system? - CORRECT ANSWER Assist the nervous system in homeostasis and plays important roles in sexual maturation." "Where do the endocrine and nervous system meet? - CORRECT ANSWER The hypothalamus and pituitary gland" "What does the hypothalamus govern? - CORRECT ANSWER The pituitary gland and is controlled by the feedback of hormones in the blood." "Which has more long-lasting effects on the body, the endocrine or the nervous system? - CORRECT ANSWER The endocrine system" "What are hormones? - CORRECT ANSWER Chemical messengers controlling growth, differentiation & metabolism of cells." "What is the function of protein hormones? - CORRECT ANSWER Stay at the cell surface and act through second messenger." "What is the usual second messenger used by protein hormones? - CORRECT ANSWER Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)" "How do hormones affect cell activity? - CORRECT ANSWER Alters the rate of protein synthesis." "Which gland is considered the "master gland"? - CORRECT ANSWER The pituitary gland" "Where is the pituitary gland located? - CORRECT ANSWER Attached to the hypothalamus by a stalk called the infundibulum." "What are the two major portions of the pituitary gland? - CORRECT ANSWER Anterior lobe-adenohypophysis Posterior lobe-neurohypophysis" "What is the function of the heart? - CORRECT ANSWER Sends blood to lungs for oxygenation through the pulmonary circuit & to the remainder of the body through the systemic circuit." "Where is blood received in the heart? - CORRECT ANSWER Blood is received in the atria" "Where is blood pumped into circulation in the heart? - CORRECT ANSWER The ventricles" "Which valve is on the right side of the heart? - CORRECT ANSWER Tricuspid" "Which valve is on the left side of the heart? - CORRECT ANSWER Bicuspid" "Where are the semilunar valves in the heart? - CORRECT ANSWER Found at the entrances of the pulmonary trunk and the aorta." "What supplies blood to the myocardium? - CORRECT ANSWER The coronary arteries" "Where does blood drain to from the myocardium? - CORRECT ANSWER Directly into the right atrium through the coronary sinus." "Where is respiration controlled? - CORRECT ANSWER The respiratory control center of the medulla" "What is the function of the respiratory system? - CORRECT ANSWER Supply O2 and eliminate CO2" "What is external respiration? - CORRECT ANSWER The exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood through the alveoli" "What is internal respiration? - CORRECT ANSWER The exchange of gases between blood and the body cells." "What is the function of the passageways between the nasal cavity and the alveoli? - CORRECT ANSWER Conduct gases to and from the lungs." "What is the function of the upper passageways? - CORRECT ANSWER Warm, filter, and moisten incoming air." "What lines the upper respiratory tubules? - CORRECT ANSWER Cilia to help trap debris and keep foreign substances from entering the lungs." "What occurs during inhalation? - CORRECT ANSWER The contraction of the diaphragm to enlarge the thoracic cavity and draw air into the lungs" "What nutrients are absorbed into the blood? - CORRECT ANSWER The amino acids and simple sugars derived from proteins and carbs." "Where are most fats absorbed? - CORRECT ANSWER Into the lymphs and lacteals, eventually added into the bloodstream." "Where do nutrients enter for decontamination? - CORRECT ANSWER Nutrients enter the liver through the hepatic portal vein." "What are villi? - CORRECT ANSWER Small finger-like structures that increase the surface area of the intestinal wall." "What is the function of the large intestine? - CORRECT ANSWER Reabsorbs water, stores and eliminates undigested food." "What are the five portions of the large intestine? - CORRECT ANSWER Ascending colon Transverse colon Sigmoid colon Rectum"