Ramesh et al. International Journal of Emergency Medicine (2019) 12:38
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12245-019-0253-8
International Journal of
Emergency Medicine
REVIEW Open Access
Fluid resuscitation in trauma: what are the
best strategies and fluids?
G. H. Ramesh1, J. C. Uma2 and Sheerin Farhath3*
Abstract
Background: Traumatic injuries pose a global health problem and account for about 10% global burden of disease.
Among injured patients, the major cause of potentially preventable death is uncontrolled post-traumatic
hemorrhage.
Main body: This review discusses the role of prehospital trauma care in low-resource/remote settings, goals,
principles and evolving strategies of fluid resuscitation, ideal resuscitation fluid, and post-resuscitation fluid
management. Management of fluid resuscitation in few special groups is also discussed.
Conclusions: Prehospital trauma care systems reduce mortality in low-resource/remote settings. Delayed
resuscitation seems a better option when transport time to definitive care is shorter whereas goal-directed
resuscitation with low-volume crystalloid seems a better option if transport time is longer. Few general
recommendations regarding the choice of fluid are provided. Adhering to evidence-based clinical practice
guidelines and local modifications based on patient population, available resources, and expertise will improve
patient outcomes.
Keywords: Fluid resuscitation, Trauma, Delayed resuscitation, Permissive hypotension, Prehospital care, Colloid,
Crystalloid
Introduction and peripheral pulses, and fast transportation to hospital
Traumatic injuries account for nearly 10% of the global for definitive treatment [3]. Prehospital intravenous fluid
burden of disease [1]. The major cause of potentially pre- administration decreases mortality in trauma patients, es-
ventable death among injured patients is uncontrolled pecially in major injuries and rural settings when prehos-
post-traumatic hemorrhage [2]. In trauma patients, fluid pital transport time (PTT) is long [4–7].
resuscitation helps restore lost blood volume, regain tissue
perfusion, and reduce mortality. Goals and principles of fluid resuscitation
This review discusses the role of prehospital trauma care The goals of fluid resuscitation include controlling bleed-
(PTC) in low-resource/remote settings; goals, principles ing, restoring lost blood volume, and regaining tissue per-
and evolving strategies of fluid resuscitation, particularly fusion and organ function. Different target systolic blood
those before blood products are available; and post- pressure (SBP) values may be considered for different
resuscitation fluid management. Management of fluid re- traumas: 60–70 mmHg for penetrating trauma; 80–90
suscitation in some special groups is also discussed. mmHg for blunt trauma without traumatic brain injury
(TBI); 100–110 mmHg for blunt trauma with TBI [8].
Prehospital trauma care However, as clinical scenarios are complex and variable,
PTC aims at the stoppage of bleeding to minimize further adhering to evidence-based clinical practice guidelines
blood loss, initial resuscitation to maintain mental status and adapting according to local treatment and patient
condition is likely to improve patient outcomes [2].
* Correspondence: Fluid administration is beneficial only if it increases
3
Columbia Asia Hospital Yeshwanthpur 26/4, Brigade Gateway Malleshwaram the stroke volume (SV) and thereby, the cardiac output.
West Beside Metro Cash and Carry West, Yeswanthpur, Bengaluru, Karnataka
560055, India Patients are considered fluid responsive if SV increases
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article by at least 10% after a fluid challenge of 500 mL of
© The Author(s). 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
, Ramesh et al. International Journal of Emergency Medicine (2019) 12:38 Page 2 of 6
crystalloid [9]. Pulse pressure variation, passive leg rais- (BP) until bleeding is controlled [2]. Penetrating trauma
ing test, and SV variation are some reliable markers for patients have better outcomes with SBP of 60–70 mmHg.
fluid responsiveness. In blunt trauma, higher SBP of 80–90 mmHg is permitted
but slower infusions are preferred over large boluses [15].
Evolving strategies of fluid resuscitation In patients with traumatic hemorrhagic shock, permissive
Resuscitation strategies are based on volume, rate, and hypotension is safe and feasible, and reduces mortality
time of fluid administration. Earlier, immediate aggressive [16]. However, large crystalloid volumes are not advisable
fluid resuscitation in trauma patients was the standard ap- and should be cautiously administered.
proach to restore circulating volume and maintain organ Mortality is increased in patients with head injury and
perfusion. However, it may dislodge soft clots and cause low cerebral perfusion pressures [17]. Small aliquots of
dilutional coagulopathy thereby increasing hemorrhage fluid (100–200 mL) should be administered to maintain
and mortality [3]. Treating trauma patients with large SBP > 90 mmHg [18] or MAP > 80 mmHg [15]. Permis-
crystalloid volumes leads to resuscitation injury, gastro- sive hypotension is contraindicated in TBI [18].
intestinal and cardiac complications, increased extremity When PTT to definitive care is shorter (< 10–15 min)
compartment pressures, coagulation disturbances, electro- and patients are well-selected, delayed resuscitation seems
lyte imbalance, hypothermia, and abdominal compartment a good option [13, 14]. Advanced life support interven-
syndrome [3]. tions provide no added benefit and may delay the time to
Two strategies were proposed to avoid clot disruption definitive care [19]. When PTT is longer than 10–15 min,
and dilutional coagulopathy: delayed resuscitation strategy mortality is increased and goal-directed resuscitation with
where fluid is given after bleeding is controlled and permis- low-volume crystalloid and basic/advanced life support in-
sive hypotension strategy, where fluid is given to increase terventions are better [4, 5, 13, 14]. As clinical scenarios
SBP without reaching normotension. In penetrating trauma are complex and variable, adhering to evidence-based clin-
patients with hypotension (prehospital SBP < 90 mmHg), ical practice guidelines and individualizing the patient’s
delayed resuscitation shows better survival rates compared SBP/MAP goals are important.
to immediate resuscitation [10]. Increased mortality is seen In severely injured patients, the lethal triad of hypothermia,
with increased in-field procedures [11, 12], supporting acidosis, and coagulopathy exacerbates hemorrhage. Damage
“scoop and run” and delayed fluid resuscitation techniques. control resuscitation combats this and comprises of permis-
However, when PTT is long, simple life support measures sive hypotension, hemostatic resuscitation, and damage con-
reduce mortality in severely injured patients [4, 5] even trol surgery (DCS).
when conducted in suburban and remote locations with Permissive hypotension, as discussed, prevents further
long PTT [13]. bleeding from recently clotted vessels. Hemostatic resus-
The low volume fluid resuscitation during permis- citation involves early use of blood and blood products
sive hypotension maintains low tissue perfusion but is to minimize coagulopathy, prevent dilutional coagulopa-
adequate for short periods. Permissive hypotension is thy, and improve survival [20, 21]. It entails the use of
achieved by goal-directed resuscitation [SBP/mean ar- plasma, platelets, and red blood cells in an optimal ratio
terial pressure (MAP) is targeted based on patient of 1:1:1 as well as the use of antifibrinolytic agents such
physiology] or controlled resuscitation (predetermined as tranexamic acid in addition to limiting the use of
fixed rates are infused such that normotension is not crystalloids [22]. Hemostatic monitoring is applied so
achieved) [3, 14]. In animal studies, controlled resusci- that when bleeding slows, a goal-directed approach for
tation of 60–80 mL/kg/h usually maintains SBP of 80– resuscitation can be adopted [22]. Massive transfusion
90 mmHg (MAP of 40–60 mmHg) in hemorrhagic protocol (MTP) should be activated in patients requiring
shock patients [14]. continued resuscitation [3] and started as early as pos-
Permissive hypotension is associated with decreased blood sible to avoid rapid administration of crystalloids [23]
loss, intra-abdominal bleeding, risk of intra-abdominal hyper- and post-injury complications such as organ failure and
tension, acidemia, hemodilution, thrombocytopenia, coagu- abdominal compartment syndrome [24].
lopathy, apoptotic cell death, tissue injury, sepsis, volumes of DCS restores physiology instead of providing definitive
crystalloid administration needed, and blood product anatomical repair. It consists of bleeding control, decon-
utilization, and improved organ perfusion and survival tamination, quick body cavity closure to rewarm the pa-
[14, 15]. However, prolonged (8 h) hypotension (SBP < tient, and planned re-operation for definitive repair [20].
65 mmHg or MAP around 65 mmHg) has been shown
to increase metabolic stress, tissue hypoxia, and mor- Ideal resuscitation fluid
tality in animal studies [14]. Though crystalloids and colloids are widely used for
International guidelines recommend restrictive volume fluid resuscitation, the ideal choice of fluid is debated.
replacement approach to achieve target blood pressure Hypotonic fluids do not stay intravascular. Therefore,
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12245-019-0253-8
International Journal of
Emergency Medicine
REVIEW Open Access
Fluid resuscitation in trauma: what are the
best strategies and fluids?
G. H. Ramesh1, J. C. Uma2 and Sheerin Farhath3*
Abstract
Background: Traumatic injuries pose a global health problem and account for about 10% global burden of disease.
Among injured patients, the major cause of potentially preventable death is uncontrolled post-traumatic
hemorrhage.
Main body: This review discusses the role of prehospital trauma care in low-resource/remote settings, goals,
principles and evolving strategies of fluid resuscitation, ideal resuscitation fluid, and post-resuscitation fluid
management. Management of fluid resuscitation in few special groups is also discussed.
Conclusions: Prehospital trauma care systems reduce mortality in low-resource/remote settings. Delayed
resuscitation seems a better option when transport time to definitive care is shorter whereas goal-directed
resuscitation with low-volume crystalloid seems a better option if transport time is longer. Few general
recommendations regarding the choice of fluid are provided. Adhering to evidence-based clinical practice
guidelines and local modifications based on patient population, available resources, and expertise will improve
patient outcomes.
Keywords: Fluid resuscitation, Trauma, Delayed resuscitation, Permissive hypotension, Prehospital care, Colloid,
Crystalloid
Introduction and peripheral pulses, and fast transportation to hospital
Traumatic injuries account for nearly 10% of the global for definitive treatment [3]. Prehospital intravenous fluid
burden of disease [1]. The major cause of potentially pre- administration decreases mortality in trauma patients, es-
ventable death among injured patients is uncontrolled pecially in major injuries and rural settings when prehos-
post-traumatic hemorrhage [2]. In trauma patients, fluid pital transport time (PTT) is long [4–7].
resuscitation helps restore lost blood volume, regain tissue
perfusion, and reduce mortality. Goals and principles of fluid resuscitation
This review discusses the role of prehospital trauma care The goals of fluid resuscitation include controlling bleed-
(PTC) in low-resource/remote settings; goals, principles ing, restoring lost blood volume, and regaining tissue per-
and evolving strategies of fluid resuscitation, particularly fusion and organ function. Different target systolic blood
those before blood products are available; and post- pressure (SBP) values may be considered for different
resuscitation fluid management. Management of fluid re- traumas: 60–70 mmHg for penetrating trauma; 80–90
suscitation in some special groups is also discussed. mmHg for blunt trauma without traumatic brain injury
(TBI); 100–110 mmHg for blunt trauma with TBI [8].
Prehospital trauma care However, as clinical scenarios are complex and variable,
PTC aims at the stoppage of bleeding to minimize further adhering to evidence-based clinical practice guidelines
blood loss, initial resuscitation to maintain mental status and adapting according to local treatment and patient
condition is likely to improve patient outcomes [2].
* Correspondence: Fluid administration is beneficial only if it increases
3
Columbia Asia Hospital Yeshwanthpur 26/4, Brigade Gateway Malleshwaram the stroke volume (SV) and thereby, the cardiac output.
West Beside Metro Cash and Carry West, Yeswanthpur, Bengaluru, Karnataka
560055, India Patients are considered fluid responsive if SV increases
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article by at least 10% after a fluid challenge of 500 mL of
© The Author(s). 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
, Ramesh et al. International Journal of Emergency Medicine (2019) 12:38 Page 2 of 6
crystalloid [9]. Pulse pressure variation, passive leg rais- (BP) until bleeding is controlled [2]. Penetrating trauma
ing test, and SV variation are some reliable markers for patients have better outcomes with SBP of 60–70 mmHg.
fluid responsiveness. In blunt trauma, higher SBP of 80–90 mmHg is permitted
but slower infusions are preferred over large boluses [15].
Evolving strategies of fluid resuscitation In patients with traumatic hemorrhagic shock, permissive
Resuscitation strategies are based on volume, rate, and hypotension is safe and feasible, and reduces mortality
time of fluid administration. Earlier, immediate aggressive [16]. However, large crystalloid volumes are not advisable
fluid resuscitation in trauma patients was the standard ap- and should be cautiously administered.
proach to restore circulating volume and maintain organ Mortality is increased in patients with head injury and
perfusion. However, it may dislodge soft clots and cause low cerebral perfusion pressures [17]. Small aliquots of
dilutional coagulopathy thereby increasing hemorrhage fluid (100–200 mL) should be administered to maintain
and mortality [3]. Treating trauma patients with large SBP > 90 mmHg [18] or MAP > 80 mmHg [15]. Permis-
crystalloid volumes leads to resuscitation injury, gastro- sive hypotension is contraindicated in TBI [18].
intestinal and cardiac complications, increased extremity When PTT to definitive care is shorter (< 10–15 min)
compartment pressures, coagulation disturbances, electro- and patients are well-selected, delayed resuscitation seems
lyte imbalance, hypothermia, and abdominal compartment a good option [13, 14]. Advanced life support interven-
syndrome [3]. tions provide no added benefit and may delay the time to
Two strategies were proposed to avoid clot disruption definitive care [19]. When PTT is longer than 10–15 min,
and dilutional coagulopathy: delayed resuscitation strategy mortality is increased and goal-directed resuscitation with
where fluid is given after bleeding is controlled and permis- low-volume crystalloid and basic/advanced life support in-
sive hypotension strategy, where fluid is given to increase terventions are better [4, 5, 13, 14]. As clinical scenarios
SBP without reaching normotension. In penetrating trauma are complex and variable, adhering to evidence-based clin-
patients with hypotension (prehospital SBP < 90 mmHg), ical practice guidelines and individualizing the patient’s
delayed resuscitation shows better survival rates compared SBP/MAP goals are important.
to immediate resuscitation [10]. Increased mortality is seen In severely injured patients, the lethal triad of hypothermia,
with increased in-field procedures [11, 12], supporting acidosis, and coagulopathy exacerbates hemorrhage. Damage
“scoop and run” and delayed fluid resuscitation techniques. control resuscitation combats this and comprises of permis-
However, when PTT is long, simple life support measures sive hypotension, hemostatic resuscitation, and damage con-
reduce mortality in severely injured patients [4, 5] even trol surgery (DCS).
when conducted in suburban and remote locations with Permissive hypotension, as discussed, prevents further
long PTT [13]. bleeding from recently clotted vessels. Hemostatic resus-
The low volume fluid resuscitation during permis- citation involves early use of blood and blood products
sive hypotension maintains low tissue perfusion but is to minimize coagulopathy, prevent dilutional coagulopa-
adequate for short periods. Permissive hypotension is thy, and improve survival [20, 21]. It entails the use of
achieved by goal-directed resuscitation [SBP/mean ar- plasma, platelets, and red blood cells in an optimal ratio
terial pressure (MAP) is targeted based on patient of 1:1:1 as well as the use of antifibrinolytic agents such
physiology] or controlled resuscitation (predetermined as tranexamic acid in addition to limiting the use of
fixed rates are infused such that normotension is not crystalloids [22]. Hemostatic monitoring is applied so
achieved) [3, 14]. In animal studies, controlled resusci- that when bleeding slows, a goal-directed approach for
tation of 60–80 mL/kg/h usually maintains SBP of 80– resuscitation can be adopted [22]. Massive transfusion
90 mmHg (MAP of 40–60 mmHg) in hemorrhagic protocol (MTP) should be activated in patients requiring
shock patients [14]. continued resuscitation [3] and started as early as pos-
Permissive hypotension is associated with decreased blood sible to avoid rapid administration of crystalloids [23]
loss, intra-abdominal bleeding, risk of intra-abdominal hyper- and post-injury complications such as organ failure and
tension, acidemia, hemodilution, thrombocytopenia, coagu- abdominal compartment syndrome [24].
lopathy, apoptotic cell death, tissue injury, sepsis, volumes of DCS restores physiology instead of providing definitive
crystalloid administration needed, and blood product anatomical repair. It consists of bleeding control, decon-
utilization, and improved organ perfusion and survival tamination, quick body cavity closure to rewarm the pa-
[14, 15]. However, prolonged (8 h) hypotension (SBP < tient, and planned re-operation for definitive repair [20].
65 mmHg or MAP around 65 mmHg) has been shown
to increase metabolic stress, tissue hypoxia, and mor- Ideal resuscitation fluid
tality in animal studies [14]. Though crystalloids and colloids are widely used for
International guidelines recommend restrictive volume fluid resuscitation, the ideal choice of fluid is debated.
replacement approach to achieve target blood pressure Hypotonic fluids do not stay intravascular. Therefore,
