summary management in networks hans de bruijn 2nd edition 2018 9781138211438
,summary management in networks hans de bruijn 2nd edition 2018 9781138211438
, summary management in networks hans de bruijn 2nd edition 2018 9781138211438
Chapter 1: Our interconnected world and what it means for decision and policy making
We live in an interconnected World. The internet and the globalisation of the economy mean everything is
connected to everything else. That sometimes has unforeseen and dramatic consequences.
Chaos theory uses a well-known metaphor to clarify these processes in an interconnected world: the
’butterfly effect’. A butterfly in Brazil flaps its wings and causes a tornado in Texas months later. The initial
movement – the flap of the butterfly’s wings – causes only a tiny effect. But that is just the first of a chain of
effects that gets bigger and bigger until eventually a tornado develops in Texas.
The structure of an interconnected world: three characteristics
First characteristic: Interdependencies
The first important characteristic of an interconnected world is that, indeed, it is inhabited by a large number
of parties or actors: governments, companies, not-for- profit organisations, citizens. These actors have differing
interests and are dependent on each other.
The world as a whole has become a network, but nations, regions and local communities are equally a
network. When decisions must be taken, for example about roads or airports, we very often see that many
local players, with differing interests, are involved.
A network can be ideal-typed as the opposite of a hierarchy. A hierarchy is a vertical, pyramid-like
structure in which there is a person or group that is in charge and that ultimately makes the decisions. In a
network there is no such thing as a vertical structure. There are many players, nobody can say that he or she is
‘in charge’, and the relationships are horizontal not vertical.
To understand the complexity of the network of interdependencies a number of other characteristics of
networks are important.
Types of interdependencies
- Bilateral or multilateral dependencies: Dependencies can exist between two parties but also
between more than two parties.
- Single or multidimensional dependencies: Dependencies can relate to one dimension (for
example, money) but also to several dimensions (money, information, authorities, relationships).
- Synchronous versus asynchronous dependencies: Actors can at one point in time all be mutually
dependent on each other, but the dependencies can also be spread out over time. Today the first
actor is dependent on the second actor, but a few months later this second actor is dependent on the
first actor.
- Static versus dynamic dependencies: A dependency is dynamic if it changes over the course of time.
A party can occupy a dominant position in a network, but that dominant position can become
stronger or weaker as time goes by. A static dependency is not subject to change.
In many networks of interdependencies, the dependencies are multilateral, multidimensional, asynchronous
and dynamic. That makes decision-making and changes in these networks extremely complex.
Different interdependencies per topic
The decision-making processes in different type of networks may be very different. It may also be the case that
certain parties are involved in both networks and this can also influence the decision-making. Coming off the
worst in the decision-making regarding infrastructure can affect a party’s attitude when it comes to decisions
about nature and the environment. This makes decision-making more complex, not only because the network
differs per issue but also because certain parties will want to link the decision-making related to one issue to
the decision-making related to the other issue.
, summary management in networks hans de bruijn 2nd edition 2018 9781138211438
Interdependencies don’t always reveal themselves
Not all the actors in a network always know what the reciprocal dependencies are. For example, a region may
think a municipality holds a weak position in a net work whereas, in fact, it holds a very strong position.
Certainly when it comes to more complex networks (many actors, many kinds of dependencies and
many links to other networks), it is virtually impossible for a single actor to oversee the entire network. If
actors are unsure of the position of other actors in a network position not only in - terms of dominance but
also in terms of views and interests it goes without - saying that an actor’s perception of the positions of others
may be mistaken. Thus networks of interdependencies are already complex, but they become even more
complex when the actors involved can have very different perceptions of the same network.
Second characteristic: Unstructured, wicked problems
A second characteristic of an interconnected world concerns the content of the problems that must be solved
in such a world. These problems are often ‘unstructured’ or ‘wicked’.
Unstructured problems can be ideal-typed as the opposite of structured problems, which are
problems for which there is only one right, or the right, solution. The answer of a structured problem is
independent of political preferences, interests or dominance. Unstructured problems do not have a single right
answer.
The result can be a major conflict regarding the question of the right data, system boundaries and allocation
methods making an objective answer often impossible. When that is the case, many parties will have a
tendency to make choices that suit their own interests or preferences.
- The facts we need to enable us to reach a good decision can either be clear-cut or ambiguous (open
to more than one interpretation).
- The normative considerations we must weigh in order to reach a good decision may be either
objective or subjective.
When the facts are ambiguous and the normative consideration is difficult or impossible to objectify, the result
is an unstructured problem. When unstructured problems have to be solved in a network with many actors all
with different interests, there is a good chance the actors will disagree about data, system boundaries,
methods and the normative weight of different components. Their interests often play a role in this when it
comes to unstructured problems, the facts don’t speak for themselves, so there is scope for them to be
discussed.
Third characteristic: Dynamics
A third characteristic of the interconnected world is that it is dynamic the interconnected world is constantly in
motion. Dynamic can be ideal-typed as the opposite of stable.
In the first place this dynamic can be due to the behaviour of the actors in the network. The decision
making starts with a number of actors, but new actors can join the decision-making later. Some actors will
leave the network because, on reflection, they have less interest in the decision-making.
In the second place it could be the content of the problem that is dynamic. The problem content can
shift. For the construction of a large seaport. This shifts the problem’s content from a purely economic
infrastructure issue to an issue that also includes coastal protection and ecology. Naturally this shift means
other actors, with other interests, appear on the scene and the decision-making process changes.
These two types of dynamics - actors and content - can reinforce each other. When actors, each with
their own definition of the problem, enter or exit the scene, the problem’s content will constantly shift. When
the problem content shifts, new actors come on the scene, and the positions in the network change. When the
two developments changing actors and changing content reinforce each other, a dynamic situation can
degenerate into a chaotic situation. But, behind this chaos there is a pattern dynamics related to actors and
,summary management in networks hans de bruijn 2nd edition 2018 9781138211438
, summary management in networks hans de bruijn 2nd edition 2018 9781138211438
Chapter 1: Our interconnected world and what it means for decision and policy making
We live in an interconnected World. The internet and the globalisation of the economy mean everything is
connected to everything else. That sometimes has unforeseen and dramatic consequences.
Chaos theory uses a well-known metaphor to clarify these processes in an interconnected world: the
’butterfly effect’. A butterfly in Brazil flaps its wings and causes a tornado in Texas months later. The initial
movement – the flap of the butterfly’s wings – causes only a tiny effect. But that is just the first of a chain of
effects that gets bigger and bigger until eventually a tornado develops in Texas.
The structure of an interconnected world: three characteristics
First characteristic: Interdependencies
The first important characteristic of an interconnected world is that, indeed, it is inhabited by a large number
of parties or actors: governments, companies, not-for- profit organisations, citizens. These actors have differing
interests and are dependent on each other.
The world as a whole has become a network, but nations, regions and local communities are equally a
network. When decisions must be taken, for example about roads or airports, we very often see that many
local players, with differing interests, are involved.
A network can be ideal-typed as the opposite of a hierarchy. A hierarchy is a vertical, pyramid-like
structure in which there is a person or group that is in charge and that ultimately makes the decisions. In a
network there is no such thing as a vertical structure. There are many players, nobody can say that he or she is
‘in charge’, and the relationships are horizontal not vertical.
To understand the complexity of the network of interdependencies a number of other characteristics of
networks are important.
Types of interdependencies
- Bilateral or multilateral dependencies: Dependencies can exist between two parties but also
between more than two parties.
- Single or multidimensional dependencies: Dependencies can relate to one dimension (for
example, money) but also to several dimensions (money, information, authorities, relationships).
- Synchronous versus asynchronous dependencies: Actors can at one point in time all be mutually
dependent on each other, but the dependencies can also be spread out over time. Today the first
actor is dependent on the second actor, but a few months later this second actor is dependent on the
first actor.
- Static versus dynamic dependencies: A dependency is dynamic if it changes over the course of time.
A party can occupy a dominant position in a network, but that dominant position can become
stronger or weaker as time goes by. A static dependency is not subject to change.
In many networks of interdependencies, the dependencies are multilateral, multidimensional, asynchronous
and dynamic. That makes decision-making and changes in these networks extremely complex.
Different interdependencies per topic
The decision-making processes in different type of networks may be very different. It may also be the case that
certain parties are involved in both networks and this can also influence the decision-making. Coming off the
worst in the decision-making regarding infrastructure can affect a party’s attitude when it comes to decisions
about nature and the environment. This makes decision-making more complex, not only because the network
differs per issue but also because certain parties will want to link the decision-making related to one issue to
the decision-making related to the other issue.
, summary management in networks hans de bruijn 2nd edition 2018 9781138211438
Interdependencies don’t always reveal themselves
Not all the actors in a network always know what the reciprocal dependencies are. For example, a region may
think a municipality holds a weak position in a net work whereas, in fact, it holds a very strong position.
Certainly when it comes to more complex networks (many actors, many kinds of dependencies and
many links to other networks), it is virtually impossible for a single actor to oversee the entire network. If
actors are unsure of the position of other actors in a network position not only in - terms of dominance but
also in terms of views and interests it goes without - saying that an actor’s perception of the positions of others
may be mistaken. Thus networks of interdependencies are already complex, but they become even more
complex when the actors involved can have very different perceptions of the same network.
Second characteristic: Unstructured, wicked problems
A second characteristic of an interconnected world concerns the content of the problems that must be solved
in such a world. These problems are often ‘unstructured’ or ‘wicked’.
Unstructured problems can be ideal-typed as the opposite of structured problems, which are
problems for which there is only one right, or the right, solution. The answer of a structured problem is
independent of political preferences, interests or dominance. Unstructured problems do not have a single right
answer.
The result can be a major conflict regarding the question of the right data, system boundaries and allocation
methods making an objective answer often impossible. When that is the case, many parties will have a
tendency to make choices that suit their own interests or preferences.
- The facts we need to enable us to reach a good decision can either be clear-cut or ambiguous (open
to more than one interpretation).
- The normative considerations we must weigh in order to reach a good decision may be either
objective or subjective.
When the facts are ambiguous and the normative consideration is difficult or impossible to objectify, the result
is an unstructured problem. When unstructured problems have to be solved in a network with many actors all
with different interests, there is a good chance the actors will disagree about data, system boundaries,
methods and the normative weight of different components. Their interests often play a role in this when it
comes to unstructured problems, the facts don’t speak for themselves, so there is scope for them to be
discussed.
Third characteristic: Dynamics
A third characteristic of the interconnected world is that it is dynamic the interconnected world is constantly in
motion. Dynamic can be ideal-typed as the opposite of stable.
In the first place this dynamic can be due to the behaviour of the actors in the network. The decision
making starts with a number of actors, but new actors can join the decision-making later. Some actors will
leave the network because, on reflection, they have less interest in the decision-making.
In the second place it could be the content of the problem that is dynamic. The problem content can
shift. For the construction of a large seaport. This shifts the problem’s content from a purely economic
infrastructure issue to an issue that also includes coastal protection and ecology. Naturally this shift means
other actors, with other interests, appear on the scene and the decision-making process changes.
These two types of dynamics - actors and content - can reinforce each other. When actors, each with
their own definition of the problem, enter or exit the scene, the problem’s content will constantly shift. When
the problem content shifts, new actors come on the scene, and the positions in the network change. When the
two developments changing actors and changing content reinforce each other, a dynamic situation can
degenerate into a chaotic situation. But, behind this chaos there is a pattern dynamics related to actors and
