Pathophysiology
Nucleus ANS Contains the genetic information of the cell
Nuleolus ANS Produces RNA which transcribes, processes, which sends out information to
the ribosomes.
Smoothe Endoplasmic Reticulum ANS Production of phospholipids
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum ANS Site of synthesis of lysosomes and proteins for
intracellular and extracellular use.
Ribosomes ANS Aids in protein production on the rough endoplasmic reticulum as well as
polysomes (messenger RNA and ribosomes).
The ribosomes along with transfer RNA interpret messenger RNA which carries the genetic
material of the cell.
Golgi apparatus ANS Sorts, chemically modifies, and packages proteins produced on the
rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Lysosomes ANS Combines with food vacuoles and digests materials engulfed by cells.
Lysosome membrane separates digestive enzymes from the cytoplasm.
Peroxisomes ANS Breaks down various potentially toxic intracellular molecules and is
involved in nerve cell myelin sheath development.
Mitochondria ANS Contains enzymes to convert food into energy. ATP production occurs in
the mitochondria.
Cilia ANS Propels materials along the surface of certain cells.
Centrioles ANS Helps organize spindle apparatus necessary for cell division.
secretory vesicles ANS Stores protein hormones or enzymes in the cytoplasm awaiting the
signal for release to the outside of the cell.
food vacuole ANS Stores ingested material and combines with lysosomes. It is the site of
digestion and degradation of engulfed materials. (for example autophagy)
,Describe the characteristics of the different types of epithelial cells. ANS Epithelial cells line
the outside and all interior areas of the body. The structure depends on the location and
function of the cell.
Simple epithelium - a single layer of cells
Stratified epithelium - multiple layers of cells
Different epithelial cell shapes include squamous, cuboidal, and columnar.
What are the functions of epithelial cells? ANS Epithelial cells provide protection as well as
play a role in absorption, secretion, and excretion.
An example of the protective function is that of the stratified squamous epithelium of the skin,
mouth, esophagus, and vagina.
Keratin is on the outer side of the skin. These are made of a fibrous protein that is shed and
replenished.
List the 3 types of connective tissue and discuss their characteristics. ANS Connective tissue
is made up of a large extra-cellular matrix and fibroblast cells that produce several types of
fibers.
The three types of fiber are collagen, elastin, and reticular.
What is the function of connective tissue? ANS The most common function of connective
tissue is to support, attach, and store within the body.
What are the different types of muscle tissue? ANS Different types of muscle fibers include
smooth, cardiac, or skeletal.
These fibers can be voluntary or involuntary (eg. Smooth muscle in the blood vessels).
,These are incapable of division and replication.
Describe the process of muscle contraction. ANS 1. Fiber stimulation leads to an action
potential, 2. depolarization and the release of calcium.
3.The calcium binds to troponin which then uncovers the actin-binding sites and allows for
myosin stands to pull the actin, leading to contraction. This process requires ATP.
Relaxation occurs when there is no longer stimulation or ATP. Calcium is then pumped back in
and the tropomyosin covers the actin-binding sites.
What are the functions of muscle tissue? ANS Muscle fiber leads to movement as well as
heart contraction and contraction of blood vessels.
What are the two different types of nerve cells? ANS Neurons
Neuroglial cells
What are the main structures of the neuron? ANS The main structures of the neuron include
the following:
· Cell body and nucleus
· Axon - conducts impulses away from the cell body
· Dendrites - conduct impulses toward the cell body
· The nerve cells are covered with myelin, forming the myelin sheath which protects the nerve
as well as increases speed of neural transmission.
What is the function of neuroglial cells? ANS Provide structure to the nervous system.
List the four types of neuroglial cells and explain their function. ANS · Astrocytes - form the
framework of the brain and spinal cord as well as the blood-brain barrier.
· Ependymal cells - for the epithelial lining of the central nervous system. They also produce
cerebral spinal fluid.
· Oligodendrocytes - these develop myelin in the central nervous system.
· Schwann Cells - produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system.
True or False: Nerve cells are incapable of division and replication. ANS True
, What is the main function of cells of the nervous system? ANS The main function of nerve
cells is the processing and transmission of information.
Describe the characteristics of a benign tumor. ANS 1. similar to normal cells and are
differentiated.
2. Mitosis occurs normally
3. These grow relatively slowly into an expanding mass. They are frequently encapsulated.
4. Spread remains localized
5. Systemic effects are rare, but can put pressure on surrounding areas.
Describe the characteristics of a malignant tumor. ANS 1. Vary in size and shape.
2. Many are undifferentiated
3. Mitosis is increased and atypical.
4. Grow rapidly
5. Not encapsulated
6. Invade surrounding tissues and spread through blood and lymph
7. More commonly life threatening.
What are punnett squares? ANS Used to show the likelihood of a genetic trait or problem
being passed on to offspring.
What would a punnett square of autsomal dominance look like? ANS 1. In autosomal
dominance, the capital letter (A) is the representation of the mutated gene. Since the disease is
rare, the most likely scenario is a paring of a normal parent and an affected heterozygous
parent.
2. There is a 50% chance of their offspring being affected with the disease and a 50% chance of
being unaffected.
What is an example of autosomal dominance? ANS Huntington Disease
Describe the punnet square of an autosomal recessive gene. ANS 1. In autosomal recessive
disorders, the lowercase letter (a) represents the recessive gene mutation. For an offspring to
get the disease, both parents have to be carriers.
Nucleus ANS Contains the genetic information of the cell
Nuleolus ANS Produces RNA which transcribes, processes, which sends out information to
the ribosomes.
Smoothe Endoplasmic Reticulum ANS Production of phospholipids
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum ANS Site of synthesis of lysosomes and proteins for
intracellular and extracellular use.
Ribosomes ANS Aids in protein production on the rough endoplasmic reticulum as well as
polysomes (messenger RNA and ribosomes).
The ribosomes along with transfer RNA interpret messenger RNA which carries the genetic
material of the cell.
Golgi apparatus ANS Sorts, chemically modifies, and packages proteins produced on the
rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Lysosomes ANS Combines with food vacuoles and digests materials engulfed by cells.
Lysosome membrane separates digestive enzymes from the cytoplasm.
Peroxisomes ANS Breaks down various potentially toxic intracellular molecules and is
involved in nerve cell myelin sheath development.
Mitochondria ANS Contains enzymes to convert food into energy. ATP production occurs in
the mitochondria.
Cilia ANS Propels materials along the surface of certain cells.
Centrioles ANS Helps organize spindle apparatus necessary for cell division.
secretory vesicles ANS Stores protein hormones or enzymes in the cytoplasm awaiting the
signal for release to the outside of the cell.
food vacuole ANS Stores ingested material and combines with lysosomes. It is the site of
digestion and degradation of engulfed materials. (for example autophagy)
,Describe the characteristics of the different types of epithelial cells. ANS Epithelial cells line
the outside and all interior areas of the body. The structure depends on the location and
function of the cell.
Simple epithelium - a single layer of cells
Stratified epithelium - multiple layers of cells
Different epithelial cell shapes include squamous, cuboidal, and columnar.
What are the functions of epithelial cells? ANS Epithelial cells provide protection as well as
play a role in absorption, secretion, and excretion.
An example of the protective function is that of the stratified squamous epithelium of the skin,
mouth, esophagus, and vagina.
Keratin is on the outer side of the skin. These are made of a fibrous protein that is shed and
replenished.
List the 3 types of connective tissue and discuss their characteristics. ANS Connective tissue
is made up of a large extra-cellular matrix and fibroblast cells that produce several types of
fibers.
The three types of fiber are collagen, elastin, and reticular.
What is the function of connective tissue? ANS The most common function of connective
tissue is to support, attach, and store within the body.
What are the different types of muscle tissue? ANS Different types of muscle fibers include
smooth, cardiac, or skeletal.
These fibers can be voluntary or involuntary (eg. Smooth muscle in the blood vessels).
,These are incapable of division and replication.
Describe the process of muscle contraction. ANS 1. Fiber stimulation leads to an action
potential, 2. depolarization and the release of calcium.
3.The calcium binds to troponin which then uncovers the actin-binding sites and allows for
myosin stands to pull the actin, leading to contraction. This process requires ATP.
Relaxation occurs when there is no longer stimulation or ATP. Calcium is then pumped back in
and the tropomyosin covers the actin-binding sites.
What are the functions of muscle tissue? ANS Muscle fiber leads to movement as well as
heart contraction and contraction of blood vessels.
What are the two different types of nerve cells? ANS Neurons
Neuroglial cells
What are the main structures of the neuron? ANS The main structures of the neuron include
the following:
· Cell body and nucleus
· Axon - conducts impulses away from the cell body
· Dendrites - conduct impulses toward the cell body
· The nerve cells are covered with myelin, forming the myelin sheath which protects the nerve
as well as increases speed of neural transmission.
What is the function of neuroglial cells? ANS Provide structure to the nervous system.
List the four types of neuroglial cells and explain their function. ANS · Astrocytes - form the
framework of the brain and spinal cord as well as the blood-brain barrier.
· Ependymal cells - for the epithelial lining of the central nervous system. They also produce
cerebral spinal fluid.
· Oligodendrocytes - these develop myelin in the central nervous system.
· Schwann Cells - produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system.
True or False: Nerve cells are incapable of division and replication. ANS True
, What is the main function of cells of the nervous system? ANS The main function of nerve
cells is the processing and transmission of information.
Describe the characteristics of a benign tumor. ANS 1. similar to normal cells and are
differentiated.
2. Mitosis occurs normally
3. These grow relatively slowly into an expanding mass. They are frequently encapsulated.
4. Spread remains localized
5. Systemic effects are rare, but can put pressure on surrounding areas.
Describe the characteristics of a malignant tumor. ANS 1. Vary in size and shape.
2. Many are undifferentiated
3. Mitosis is increased and atypical.
4. Grow rapidly
5. Not encapsulated
6. Invade surrounding tissues and spread through blood and lymph
7. More commonly life threatening.
What are punnett squares? ANS Used to show the likelihood of a genetic trait or problem
being passed on to offspring.
What would a punnett square of autsomal dominance look like? ANS 1. In autosomal
dominance, the capital letter (A) is the representation of the mutated gene. Since the disease is
rare, the most likely scenario is a paring of a normal parent and an affected heterozygous
parent.
2. There is a 50% chance of their offspring being affected with the disease and a 50% chance of
being unaffected.
What is an example of autosomal dominance? ANS Huntington Disease
Describe the punnet square of an autosomal recessive gene. ANS 1. In autosomal recessive
disorders, the lowercase letter (a) represents the recessive gene mutation. For an offspring to
get the disease, both parents have to be carriers.
