Chapter 10: Motivation and Emotion
Motivational Theories and Concepts
- Motives – needs, wants, interests, and desires that propel people in certain directions
- Motivation – involves goal-directed behavior
- Motivation to achieve relevant goals can be an important determinant of adjustment
Drive Theories
- The drive concept appears in a diverse array of theories that otherwise have little in common,
such as psychoanalytic and behaviouralist formulations
- Approach to understanding motivation was explored most fully by Clark Hull in 1940-1950s
- Drive theories apply the concept of homeostasis – state of psychological equilibrium or stability,
to behavior
- A drive – is an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that
should reduce this tension
- These unpleasant states of tension are viewed as disruptions of the preferred equilibrium
- According to drive theories, when individuals experience a drive, they’re motivated to pursue
actions that will lead to drive reduction
- Ex. During a long class you may feel hungry. The hunger motive has usually been conceptualized
as a drive system – if you go without food for a while, you being to experience some discomfort.
This internal tension (the drive) motivates you to obtain food. Eating reduces the drive and
restores physiological equilibrium
- Drive theories have been very influential, and the drive concept continues to be widely used in
modern psychology
- However, drive theories cannot explain all motivation
- Homeostasis appears irrelevant to some human motives, such as a “thirst for knowledge”
- Also, motivation may exist without drive arousal – stop for ice cream even though you aren’t
hungry
- Because drive theories assume that people always try to reduce internal tension, they can’t
explain this behavior very well
Incentive Theories
- Incentive theories propose that external stimuli regulate motivational states
- An incentive – is an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior
- Some of these incentives may reduce drives, others may not
- Drive and incentive models of motivation are often contrasted as push-versus-pull theories
- Drive theories emphasize how internal states of tension push people in certain directions
- Incentive theories emphasize how external stimuli pull people in certain directions
- According to drive theories, the source of motivation lies within the organism
- According to incentive theories, the source of motivation lies outside the organism, in the
environment
- This means that incentive models don’t operate according to the principle of homeostasis, which
hinges on internal changes in the organism
, - Thus, in comparison to drive theories, incentive theories emphasize environmental factors and
downplay the biological bases of human motivation
- As you’re painfully aware, people can’t always obtain goals they desire, such as good grades or
choice promotions
- Expectancy-value models – of motivation are incentive theories that take this reality into account
- According to expectancy value models – one motivation to pursue a particular course of action
will depend on two factors
1. Expectancy about one’s chances of attaining the incentive
2. The value of the desired incentive
- Thus, your motivation to pursue a promotion at work will depend on your estimate of the
likelihood that you can snare the promotion (expectancy) and on how appealing the promotion
is to you (value)
- Expectancy-value models have proven to be useful in understanding a range of human behaviors
and motivations
Evolutionary Theories
- Psychologists who take an evolutionary perspective assert that human motives and those of
other species are the products of evolution, just as anatomical characteristics are
- They argue that natural selection favors behaviors that maximize reproductive stress – that is,
passing on genes to the next generation
- Thus, they explain motives such as affiliation, achievement, dominance, aggression, and sex
drive in terms of their adaptive value
- If dominance is a crucial motive for a species, they say, its because dominance provides a
reproductive or survival advantage
- Evolutionary analyses of motivation are based on the premise that motives can best be
understood in terms of the adaptive problems they solved for our hunger-gatherer ancestors
- Ex. The need for dominance is thought to be greater in men than woman because it could
facilitate males reproductive success in a variety of ways
1. Females may prefer mating with dominant males
2. Dominant males may poach females from subordinate males
3. Dominant males may intimidate male rivals in competition for sexual access
4. Domain males may acquire more material resources, which may increase mating
opportunities
- David Buss points out that it is not by accident that achievement, power(dominance) and
intimacy are among most heavily studied social motives, as the satisfaction of each of these
motives is likely to affect ones reproductive success
- Affiliation motive or need for belonginess
- The adaptive benefits of affiliation for our ancient ancestors probably included help with rearing
offspring, collaboration in hunting or defence, opportunities for sexual interaction, and so forth
The Range and Diversity of Human Motives
- Motivational theorists of all persuasions agree on one point: Humans display an enormous
diversity of motives
, - Most theories (exception of evolutionary theories) distinguish between biological motives that
originate in bodily needs such as hunger and social motives that originate in social experiences
such as the need for achievement
- People all share same biological motives, most of which are based on needs essential to survival
but their social motives vary, depending on their experiences
- Although people have a limited number of biological motives, they can acquire an unlimited
number of social motives through learning and socialization
- Henry Murray – theories that most people have needs for achievement, autonomy, affiliation,
dominance, exhibition, and order among other things
- Strength of motives varies from person to person, depending on personal history
- Given the range and diversity of human motives, we can examine only a handful in depth
- Our choices reflect the motives psychologists have studied the most: hunger, sex, achievement
The Motivation of Hunger and Eating
- Hunger is deceptive
- Puzzling and complex motivational system
Biological Factors in the Regulation of Hunger
- 1912 – Walter Cannon and A. L. Washburn – there is an association between stomach
contractions and the experience of hunger
- Based on this correlation, Cannon theorized that stomach contractions cause hunger
- However – correlation is no assurance of causation – theory was eventually discredited
- Stomach contractions often accompany hunger, but they don’t cause it
- Later research showed that people continue to experience hunger even after their stomachs
have been removed out of medical necessity
- If hunger can occur without a stomach, then stomach contractions can’t be the cause of hunger
Brain Regulation
- Research in lab animals eventually suggested that the experience of hunger is controlled in the
hypothalamus
- Hypothalamus – a tiny structure involved in the regulation of a variety of biological needs related
to survival
- In 1940-1950 studies using brain lesioning techniques and electrical stimulation of the brain led
to the conclusion that the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and the ventromedial nucleus of the
hypothalamus (VMH) – were the brain’s on-off switches for control of hunger – proven wrong
- Current thinking is that the latera land ventromedial areas of the hypothalamus are elements in
the neural circuitry that regulates hunger
- However, they are not key elements nor simple on-off centers
- Today scientists believe that two areas of the hypothalamus – arcuate nucleus and
paraventricular nucleus – play larger role in modulation of hunger – arcuate nucleus especially
important – contains group of neurons sensitive to incoming hunger signals and other group of
neurons that respond to satiety signals
- Contemporary theories of hunger focus more on neural circuits that pass-through areas of the
hypothalamus rather than on anatomical centers in the brain
Motivational Theories and Concepts
- Motives – needs, wants, interests, and desires that propel people in certain directions
- Motivation – involves goal-directed behavior
- Motivation to achieve relevant goals can be an important determinant of adjustment
Drive Theories
- The drive concept appears in a diverse array of theories that otherwise have little in common,
such as psychoanalytic and behaviouralist formulations
- Approach to understanding motivation was explored most fully by Clark Hull in 1940-1950s
- Drive theories apply the concept of homeostasis – state of psychological equilibrium or stability,
to behavior
- A drive – is an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that
should reduce this tension
- These unpleasant states of tension are viewed as disruptions of the preferred equilibrium
- According to drive theories, when individuals experience a drive, they’re motivated to pursue
actions that will lead to drive reduction
- Ex. During a long class you may feel hungry. The hunger motive has usually been conceptualized
as a drive system – if you go without food for a while, you being to experience some discomfort.
This internal tension (the drive) motivates you to obtain food. Eating reduces the drive and
restores physiological equilibrium
- Drive theories have been very influential, and the drive concept continues to be widely used in
modern psychology
- However, drive theories cannot explain all motivation
- Homeostasis appears irrelevant to some human motives, such as a “thirst for knowledge”
- Also, motivation may exist without drive arousal – stop for ice cream even though you aren’t
hungry
- Because drive theories assume that people always try to reduce internal tension, they can’t
explain this behavior very well
Incentive Theories
- Incentive theories propose that external stimuli regulate motivational states
- An incentive – is an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior
- Some of these incentives may reduce drives, others may not
- Drive and incentive models of motivation are often contrasted as push-versus-pull theories
- Drive theories emphasize how internal states of tension push people in certain directions
- Incentive theories emphasize how external stimuli pull people in certain directions
- According to drive theories, the source of motivation lies within the organism
- According to incentive theories, the source of motivation lies outside the organism, in the
environment
- This means that incentive models don’t operate according to the principle of homeostasis, which
hinges on internal changes in the organism
, - Thus, in comparison to drive theories, incentive theories emphasize environmental factors and
downplay the biological bases of human motivation
- As you’re painfully aware, people can’t always obtain goals they desire, such as good grades or
choice promotions
- Expectancy-value models – of motivation are incentive theories that take this reality into account
- According to expectancy value models – one motivation to pursue a particular course of action
will depend on two factors
1. Expectancy about one’s chances of attaining the incentive
2. The value of the desired incentive
- Thus, your motivation to pursue a promotion at work will depend on your estimate of the
likelihood that you can snare the promotion (expectancy) and on how appealing the promotion
is to you (value)
- Expectancy-value models have proven to be useful in understanding a range of human behaviors
and motivations
Evolutionary Theories
- Psychologists who take an evolutionary perspective assert that human motives and those of
other species are the products of evolution, just as anatomical characteristics are
- They argue that natural selection favors behaviors that maximize reproductive stress – that is,
passing on genes to the next generation
- Thus, they explain motives such as affiliation, achievement, dominance, aggression, and sex
drive in terms of their adaptive value
- If dominance is a crucial motive for a species, they say, its because dominance provides a
reproductive or survival advantage
- Evolutionary analyses of motivation are based on the premise that motives can best be
understood in terms of the adaptive problems they solved for our hunger-gatherer ancestors
- Ex. The need for dominance is thought to be greater in men than woman because it could
facilitate males reproductive success in a variety of ways
1. Females may prefer mating with dominant males
2. Dominant males may poach females from subordinate males
3. Dominant males may intimidate male rivals in competition for sexual access
4. Domain males may acquire more material resources, which may increase mating
opportunities
- David Buss points out that it is not by accident that achievement, power(dominance) and
intimacy are among most heavily studied social motives, as the satisfaction of each of these
motives is likely to affect ones reproductive success
- Affiliation motive or need for belonginess
- The adaptive benefits of affiliation for our ancient ancestors probably included help with rearing
offspring, collaboration in hunting or defence, opportunities for sexual interaction, and so forth
The Range and Diversity of Human Motives
- Motivational theorists of all persuasions agree on one point: Humans display an enormous
diversity of motives
, - Most theories (exception of evolutionary theories) distinguish between biological motives that
originate in bodily needs such as hunger and social motives that originate in social experiences
such as the need for achievement
- People all share same biological motives, most of which are based on needs essential to survival
but their social motives vary, depending on their experiences
- Although people have a limited number of biological motives, they can acquire an unlimited
number of social motives through learning and socialization
- Henry Murray – theories that most people have needs for achievement, autonomy, affiliation,
dominance, exhibition, and order among other things
- Strength of motives varies from person to person, depending on personal history
- Given the range and diversity of human motives, we can examine only a handful in depth
- Our choices reflect the motives psychologists have studied the most: hunger, sex, achievement
The Motivation of Hunger and Eating
- Hunger is deceptive
- Puzzling and complex motivational system
Biological Factors in the Regulation of Hunger
- 1912 – Walter Cannon and A. L. Washburn – there is an association between stomach
contractions and the experience of hunger
- Based on this correlation, Cannon theorized that stomach contractions cause hunger
- However – correlation is no assurance of causation – theory was eventually discredited
- Stomach contractions often accompany hunger, but they don’t cause it
- Later research showed that people continue to experience hunger even after their stomachs
have been removed out of medical necessity
- If hunger can occur without a stomach, then stomach contractions can’t be the cause of hunger
Brain Regulation
- Research in lab animals eventually suggested that the experience of hunger is controlled in the
hypothalamus
- Hypothalamus – a tiny structure involved in the regulation of a variety of biological needs related
to survival
- In 1940-1950 studies using brain lesioning techniques and electrical stimulation of the brain led
to the conclusion that the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and the ventromedial nucleus of the
hypothalamus (VMH) – were the brain’s on-off switches for control of hunger – proven wrong
- Current thinking is that the latera land ventromedial areas of the hypothalamus are elements in
the neural circuitry that regulates hunger
- However, they are not key elements nor simple on-off centers
- Today scientists believe that two areas of the hypothalamus – arcuate nucleus and
paraventricular nucleus – play larger role in modulation of hunger – arcuate nucleus especially
important – contains group of neurons sensitive to incoming hunger signals and other group of
neurons that respond to satiety signals
- Contemporary theories of hunger focus more on neural circuits that pass-through areas of the
hypothalamus rather than on anatomical centers in the brain
