Week 1: Expansion
Lecture: Expansion
In the early modern period, sea routes emerged, competitions between
empires and faiths, technological innovations; the result was a world that
became globally connected. In practice this is reflected in Japan and the
Colombian Exchange, among others.
The Japanese case offers historians a new picture, which is adjusted
in response to new research. The perception of the other mainly plays a
role here; Not only behavior, but also appearance plays a role in this. An
early modern ideology is that 'the other' is often seen as barbaric, where
the 'barbarian' is opposed to a 'real human being'. The Portuguese did not
know much about the Japanese islands, but were interested because of
religious beliefs; these were mainly the missionaries, who wanted to
convert the indigenous and local population. In 1542, the Portuguese ship
arrived in Tanegashima (the southernmost part of the Japanese island
chain). They were seen there as barbarians (also: nanban, southern
barbarian), mainly because they had different customs. This had to do
with three 'important' empires within Asia: Tenjiku (which included India
and the Buddhists), Shintan (China), Wagechō (Japan and Korea, also the
area that saw itself as the center of the world). Outside there one could
encounter mythical creatures. The Japanese 'declared' the Portuguese as
inhabitants of the Tenjiku (a mythical realm) and viewed them with both
horror and admiration. Portuguese were described as “a goblin with a long
nose or a demon with a long neck.” Despite their abhorrence of the
Portuguese appearance (aka enter, redhead), she embraced it. This was
reflected in, for example, the nanban parades, in which they described the
arrival of the Portuguese and the imitation of Portuguese customs
(nanban clothing, art, etc.).
Brett Walker (1967–present) argues that Japanese society survived
European expansion (both socially and politically). Walker proposes
several reasons for this. First, the Japanese were resistant to endemic
diseases such as smallpox and syphilis; the Europeans did not have this
resistance, so were weaker than the Japanese. Second, the Japanese were
stronger because of their diet: sugar had been cultivated as a result of
Chinese contact since the eighth century, giving them a more varied diet.
Third, Japan had an advanced political organization, with a feudal system
and feudal lords. Even though they were constantly fighting an internal
battle, this was the reason they became stronger; the Portuguese tried to
respond to this, but were unable to dominate the Japanese. Recently,
Japan had a highly developed society – reminiscent of the ancient Greeks
and Romans; the Europeans therefore saw the Japanese as the 'best race'
among the pagans.
It was often thought that Japan only 'opened up' at the end of the
eighteenth century, under the leadership of the Americans. However, this
image is wrong: Japan had trade contacts within Asia long before the
eighteenth century. The country was an important player in global trade,
including in the arms trade (swords, knives, armor) and folding screens.
Trade to China, Asia and Europe was established via 'Japan towns' such as
,Manila (think of modern-day 'Chinatowns'), which became increasingly
popular from the sixteenth century onwards.
Another important case of global (trade) contact is the Columbian
exchange, which was mapped by Alfred Crosby (1931-2018). Despite its
primo simplistic view, this exchange was more complex than first
imagined. This exchange had its origins in the appeal to Ferdinand and
Isabelle: due to the difference in water and food between the colonized
areas and the mother country, there was little chance of success; they
could only survive on Spanish food. Physical differences were central to
explaining different air, water and food. 'Indians' often had dark skin,
straight hair, no beards and baldness, fewer stomach and intestinal
complaints, no gallstones and were timid. Spaniards had lighter skin, lots
of hair, full beards and baldness, stomach complaints, had gallstones and
were proud by nature. To map these physical differences, the Theory of
Humors was devised; this was to provide an image of the (im)balance of
bodily fluids within a person. There are four humors: phlegm (phlegmatic),
black bile (melancholic), blood (ardor), and yellow bile (aggressive); the
first two humors were described as mainly masculine, the last two mainly
feminine. Native men were similar to the female Europeans: both were
timid, with a surplus of black bile; explains by new blood, new food, which
creates new humors. The Spanish colonists were afraid of losing their
beards due to this different climate – an example of their masculinity.
However, this could be solved by bringing back the Spanish climate.
Even though the Europeans brought their food to America, there
was also some interaction (including chocolate and potatoes). However,
there was a 'delayed impact' (John Elliot, The Old World and the New,
1970); Elliot argued that Europeans often fell back on the Renaissance
and Antiquity, which made them less open to new ideas. The basic idea
was that chocolate and potatoes made their way to Europe from the
eighteenth century, after the elite realized that these foods could help
with food crises. However, the influence of these substances could only be
determined afterwards; for example: before the introduction of tea in
Europe, no thought was given to products related to tea.
Chocolate was an important 'ingredient' in spiritual rituals; cocoa
drink was offered to guests, but should not be seen as a delicacy, but
rather as a healthy (but nevertheless 'gross') drink. Within this 'chocolate
trade', women played a major role, who popularized the preparation of
this chocolate drink in America. Due to the lack of women, the Spaniards
often married indigenous women, which had both political and cultural
advantages: the Spaniards became part of 'local life'. Partly because of
these hybrid marriages (Marcy Norton, Sacred gifts, Profane gifts, 2018)
cocoa also made its way outside America; the Spanish were able to ship it
to Portugal, where it was also popularized.
The potato came from the Andes; the standard story is that these
were considered poisonous and inedible upon arrival in Europe, but that
the elite (including Frederick the Great) popularized the potato among the
population. However, this image is not entirely correct: poor farmers
started growing potatoes (Rebecca Earle, Feeding the people, 2020), after
which it became popular in several countries. This happened in the
,sixteenth century (Italy), when the turnip was replaced by the potato. In
1570 the potato became popular in the Canary Islands (France,
Netherlands); and in the seventeenth century in the British Isles and in
Spain, Germany, France, the Netherlands and Italy. The potato was sought
after by poor farmers because it was tax-free, easy to cultivate and had a
high nutritional value, full of protein and calories (the difference between
a hectare of grain versus a hectare of potatoes was 7 versus 17 -21
people). However, it did not become a basic tool; Nevertheless, this role
was still reserved for grain.
Handbook questions
From the end of the 15th century, European navigators, sent by the
Iberian monarchies of Portugal and Spain, reached the American
continent. There they met various indigenous peoples who were organized
in various ways. Present and analyze this encounter and the systems of
settlement, governance and domination that emerged in the 16th century.
1) Which were the two most advanced empires on the Americas? How
were they adopted by Europeans? What factors led to the
emergence of this European dominance?
The most advanced empires were the Aztec Empire (around Mexico)
and the Inca Empire (around the Andes). The Aztec Empire was
formed in the early fifteenth century through a society between the
Mexicopeople and their allies. The empire was highly organized,
with specialized courts and advanced astronomy, mathematics, and
engineering. The takeover of these types of cities had both an
advantage and a disadvantage: it was advantageous that the city
had already been built up, but it was disadvantageous that they had
perhaps not properly prepared for this takeover. Due to the constant
struggle against their opponents, the Aztec empire was a warlike,
divided and unstable region; partly because of this, Cortés was able
to enter into an alliance with Tlaxcala, an individual state that had
remained out of the hands of the Aztecs. The role of interpreters
was prominent in this, mainly to make connections. Cortés uses the
divide and conquer technique. Cortés and his forces were invited by
Moctezuma to his city, where they captured him (after seven
months in Tenochtitlan, the center of the Aztec empire), and
eventually executed him. Cortés was chased out of the city, but
returned a second time and defeated the Aztec Empire for good in
the late summer of 1521. The Inca Empire was located 3000 meters
above sea level and had little contact with other peoples. Like the
Aztecs, the Incas were advanced, with colored buttons for
administrative accounting (khipus). In 1438 the Incas expanded into
an area that, at its peak, stretched from Ecuador and Colombia to
Chile with Cuzco as its capital. The empire was divided into four
parts, each with its own divisions. At the time of the Spanish
invasion, the empire was weakened by a civil war over power and
various diseases caused by trade with groups that had been in
contact with Europeans. Atahuapla welcomed the Spaniards led by
Pizarro, but had a catch: with an army of forty thousand people, he
, wanted to take their horses and create skilled men for the army.
However, the Spaniards beat him to it and kidnapped him; he was
eventually murdered in 1533. When Cuzco fell simultaneously, the
Spanish plundered the city for gold and silver.
2) How were the American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish
governed? Present the key aspects of the governance systems that
have been put in place.
The Portuguese and Spanish colonies were directly governed, with
merchants having to locate to one port where they were taxed and
then could transport their goods within Europe. Their direct rule
involved sending nobles and officers to maintain power within the
colonized areas, who in return were given land to cultivate. Through
agencies such as Home from India the Spanish crown retained a
trade monopoly on European goods and the import and export of
spices and various precious metals. Various administrative customs
were also established, including law codes and legal aids (including
the audience), exercise of military power and local authority
(council).
3) How did the two ancient empires evolve demographically and
economically after the arrival of Europeans?
By using it encomiendasystem, rulers could force the indigenous
population to provide labor and surrender treasures in exchange for
food and shelter. There were previous systems, which made it
easier for the Spaniards to base their own systems on them and
introduce them simultaneously. It was first used for agricultural
exploitation, but later (in the 1540s) also for labor in the silver
mines. The sugar trade, which originated in Brazil, is important here.
The renovation required a lot of human resources, which meant: as
many of the indigenous population died, the slave trade between
Africa and the Americas was initiated. It was later replaced by
distribution (in New Spain) or meters (in Peru), where a number of
indigenous people performed certain tasks for a set period of time.
European domination had disastrous consequences not only
economically, but also for demography; many deaths occurred due
to violence and the interruption of agriculture and trade as a result
of the civil war. However, the main cause of death was the diseases
that the Europeans brought with them (e.g smallpox), which
resulted in the deaths of approximately ninety percent of the
indigenous population. A new 'population' also arrived around 1600:
creoles, American-born Europeans. In addition, the Iberians had
sexual intercourse with native women, which led to the formation
and expansion of mestizo (a population group of mixed Iberian and
Indian descent). Most recently, a large group of enslaved Africans
arrived, creating a new ethnic and racial population group.
The domination of the Americas by Europeans from the 16th century
onwards contributed to the creation of a global economy. Present and
Lecture: Expansion
In the early modern period, sea routes emerged, competitions between
empires and faiths, technological innovations; the result was a world that
became globally connected. In practice this is reflected in Japan and the
Colombian Exchange, among others.
The Japanese case offers historians a new picture, which is adjusted
in response to new research. The perception of the other mainly plays a
role here; Not only behavior, but also appearance plays a role in this. An
early modern ideology is that 'the other' is often seen as barbaric, where
the 'barbarian' is opposed to a 'real human being'. The Portuguese did not
know much about the Japanese islands, but were interested because of
religious beliefs; these were mainly the missionaries, who wanted to
convert the indigenous and local population. In 1542, the Portuguese ship
arrived in Tanegashima (the southernmost part of the Japanese island
chain). They were seen there as barbarians (also: nanban, southern
barbarian), mainly because they had different customs. This had to do
with three 'important' empires within Asia: Tenjiku (which included India
and the Buddhists), Shintan (China), Wagechō (Japan and Korea, also the
area that saw itself as the center of the world). Outside there one could
encounter mythical creatures. The Japanese 'declared' the Portuguese as
inhabitants of the Tenjiku (a mythical realm) and viewed them with both
horror and admiration. Portuguese were described as “a goblin with a long
nose or a demon with a long neck.” Despite their abhorrence of the
Portuguese appearance (aka enter, redhead), she embraced it. This was
reflected in, for example, the nanban parades, in which they described the
arrival of the Portuguese and the imitation of Portuguese customs
(nanban clothing, art, etc.).
Brett Walker (1967–present) argues that Japanese society survived
European expansion (both socially and politically). Walker proposes
several reasons for this. First, the Japanese were resistant to endemic
diseases such as smallpox and syphilis; the Europeans did not have this
resistance, so were weaker than the Japanese. Second, the Japanese were
stronger because of their diet: sugar had been cultivated as a result of
Chinese contact since the eighth century, giving them a more varied diet.
Third, Japan had an advanced political organization, with a feudal system
and feudal lords. Even though they were constantly fighting an internal
battle, this was the reason they became stronger; the Portuguese tried to
respond to this, but were unable to dominate the Japanese. Recently,
Japan had a highly developed society – reminiscent of the ancient Greeks
and Romans; the Europeans therefore saw the Japanese as the 'best race'
among the pagans.
It was often thought that Japan only 'opened up' at the end of the
eighteenth century, under the leadership of the Americans. However, this
image is wrong: Japan had trade contacts within Asia long before the
eighteenth century. The country was an important player in global trade,
including in the arms trade (swords, knives, armor) and folding screens.
Trade to China, Asia and Europe was established via 'Japan towns' such as
,Manila (think of modern-day 'Chinatowns'), which became increasingly
popular from the sixteenth century onwards.
Another important case of global (trade) contact is the Columbian
exchange, which was mapped by Alfred Crosby (1931-2018). Despite its
primo simplistic view, this exchange was more complex than first
imagined. This exchange had its origins in the appeal to Ferdinand and
Isabelle: due to the difference in water and food between the colonized
areas and the mother country, there was little chance of success; they
could only survive on Spanish food. Physical differences were central to
explaining different air, water and food. 'Indians' often had dark skin,
straight hair, no beards and baldness, fewer stomach and intestinal
complaints, no gallstones and were timid. Spaniards had lighter skin, lots
of hair, full beards and baldness, stomach complaints, had gallstones and
were proud by nature. To map these physical differences, the Theory of
Humors was devised; this was to provide an image of the (im)balance of
bodily fluids within a person. There are four humors: phlegm (phlegmatic),
black bile (melancholic), blood (ardor), and yellow bile (aggressive); the
first two humors were described as mainly masculine, the last two mainly
feminine. Native men were similar to the female Europeans: both were
timid, with a surplus of black bile; explains by new blood, new food, which
creates new humors. The Spanish colonists were afraid of losing their
beards due to this different climate – an example of their masculinity.
However, this could be solved by bringing back the Spanish climate.
Even though the Europeans brought their food to America, there
was also some interaction (including chocolate and potatoes). However,
there was a 'delayed impact' (John Elliot, The Old World and the New,
1970); Elliot argued that Europeans often fell back on the Renaissance
and Antiquity, which made them less open to new ideas. The basic idea
was that chocolate and potatoes made their way to Europe from the
eighteenth century, after the elite realized that these foods could help
with food crises. However, the influence of these substances could only be
determined afterwards; for example: before the introduction of tea in
Europe, no thought was given to products related to tea.
Chocolate was an important 'ingredient' in spiritual rituals; cocoa
drink was offered to guests, but should not be seen as a delicacy, but
rather as a healthy (but nevertheless 'gross') drink. Within this 'chocolate
trade', women played a major role, who popularized the preparation of
this chocolate drink in America. Due to the lack of women, the Spaniards
often married indigenous women, which had both political and cultural
advantages: the Spaniards became part of 'local life'. Partly because of
these hybrid marriages (Marcy Norton, Sacred gifts, Profane gifts, 2018)
cocoa also made its way outside America; the Spanish were able to ship it
to Portugal, where it was also popularized.
The potato came from the Andes; the standard story is that these
were considered poisonous and inedible upon arrival in Europe, but that
the elite (including Frederick the Great) popularized the potato among the
population. However, this image is not entirely correct: poor farmers
started growing potatoes (Rebecca Earle, Feeding the people, 2020), after
which it became popular in several countries. This happened in the
,sixteenth century (Italy), when the turnip was replaced by the potato. In
1570 the potato became popular in the Canary Islands (France,
Netherlands); and in the seventeenth century in the British Isles and in
Spain, Germany, France, the Netherlands and Italy. The potato was sought
after by poor farmers because it was tax-free, easy to cultivate and had a
high nutritional value, full of protein and calories (the difference between
a hectare of grain versus a hectare of potatoes was 7 versus 17 -21
people). However, it did not become a basic tool; Nevertheless, this role
was still reserved for grain.
Handbook questions
From the end of the 15th century, European navigators, sent by the
Iberian monarchies of Portugal and Spain, reached the American
continent. There they met various indigenous peoples who were organized
in various ways. Present and analyze this encounter and the systems of
settlement, governance and domination that emerged in the 16th century.
1) Which were the two most advanced empires on the Americas? How
were they adopted by Europeans? What factors led to the
emergence of this European dominance?
The most advanced empires were the Aztec Empire (around Mexico)
and the Inca Empire (around the Andes). The Aztec Empire was
formed in the early fifteenth century through a society between the
Mexicopeople and their allies. The empire was highly organized,
with specialized courts and advanced astronomy, mathematics, and
engineering. The takeover of these types of cities had both an
advantage and a disadvantage: it was advantageous that the city
had already been built up, but it was disadvantageous that they had
perhaps not properly prepared for this takeover. Due to the constant
struggle against their opponents, the Aztec empire was a warlike,
divided and unstable region; partly because of this, Cortés was able
to enter into an alliance with Tlaxcala, an individual state that had
remained out of the hands of the Aztecs. The role of interpreters
was prominent in this, mainly to make connections. Cortés uses the
divide and conquer technique. Cortés and his forces were invited by
Moctezuma to his city, where they captured him (after seven
months in Tenochtitlan, the center of the Aztec empire), and
eventually executed him. Cortés was chased out of the city, but
returned a second time and defeated the Aztec Empire for good in
the late summer of 1521. The Inca Empire was located 3000 meters
above sea level and had little contact with other peoples. Like the
Aztecs, the Incas were advanced, with colored buttons for
administrative accounting (khipus). In 1438 the Incas expanded into
an area that, at its peak, stretched from Ecuador and Colombia to
Chile with Cuzco as its capital. The empire was divided into four
parts, each with its own divisions. At the time of the Spanish
invasion, the empire was weakened by a civil war over power and
various diseases caused by trade with groups that had been in
contact with Europeans. Atahuapla welcomed the Spaniards led by
Pizarro, but had a catch: with an army of forty thousand people, he
, wanted to take their horses and create skilled men for the army.
However, the Spaniards beat him to it and kidnapped him; he was
eventually murdered in 1533. When Cuzco fell simultaneously, the
Spanish plundered the city for gold and silver.
2) How were the American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish
governed? Present the key aspects of the governance systems that
have been put in place.
The Portuguese and Spanish colonies were directly governed, with
merchants having to locate to one port where they were taxed and
then could transport their goods within Europe. Their direct rule
involved sending nobles and officers to maintain power within the
colonized areas, who in return were given land to cultivate. Through
agencies such as Home from India the Spanish crown retained a
trade monopoly on European goods and the import and export of
spices and various precious metals. Various administrative customs
were also established, including law codes and legal aids (including
the audience), exercise of military power and local authority
(council).
3) How did the two ancient empires evolve demographically and
economically after the arrival of Europeans?
By using it encomiendasystem, rulers could force the indigenous
population to provide labor and surrender treasures in exchange for
food and shelter. There were previous systems, which made it
easier for the Spaniards to base their own systems on them and
introduce them simultaneously. It was first used for agricultural
exploitation, but later (in the 1540s) also for labor in the silver
mines. The sugar trade, which originated in Brazil, is important here.
The renovation required a lot of human resources, which meant: as
many of the indigenous population died, the slave trade between
Africa and the Americas was initiated. It was later replaced by
distribution (in New Spain) or meters (in Peru), where a number of
indigenous people performed certain tasks for a set period of time.
European domination had disastrous consequences not only
economically, but also for demography; many deaths occurred due
to violence and the interruption of agriculture and trade as a result
of the civil war. However, the main cause of death was the diseases
that the Europeans brought with them (e.g smallpox), which
resulted in the deaths of approximately ninety percent of the
indigenous population. A new 'population' also arrived around 1600:
creoles, American-born Europeans. In addition, the Iberians had
sexual intercourse with native women, which led to the formation
and expansion of mestizo (a population group of mixed Iberian and
Indian descent). Most recently, a large group of enslaved Africans
arrived, creating a new ethnic and racial population group.
The domination of the Americas by Europeans from the 16th century
onwards contributed to the creation of a global economy. Present and
