RELIGION AS A CONSERVATIVE FORCE:
De nition of religion;
- SUBSTANTIVE = focus on the substance or content of religion, like the belief in God
e.g. Christianity
Useful because it sets a speci c criteria which helps to draw a clear line between religious
and non-religious beliefs
Problem because it is too narrow/exclusive (e.g. to be religious you need to believe in a
God etc..)
- FUNCTIONAL = focus on the functions or roles religion performs for individuals or
society such as reinforcing social solidarity and answering ‘ultimate’ questions about
the meaning of life e.g. Buddhism
Useful because it is more inclusive, as it include a wide range of beliefs and practices and
diverts away from the traditional western concept of religion
Problem because it is too inclusive as everything can be considered as a religion (even
the non-religious)
- SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION = focus on how the term ‘religion’ is used by di erent
individuals, groups and organisations. Religion does not have a ‘single, common-sense
meaning’. e.g. Scientology
Useful because it is very inclusive as it is based on your own perspective
Problem because there is no objective de nition, so it’s hard to measure, compare,
operationalise etc.. and the lack of clarity makes it harder for sociologists to study religion
since people have widely di erent views (unreliable)
Functionalism;
- Durkheim; (elementary forms of religious life)
• Studied the religion of various Australian Aboriginal groups
• Durkheim saw their religion, totemism, as the simplest form of religion
• He argued totemism represents religion in its most elementary form
• A totem is an object that has a particular signi cance for a social group - each totem
symbolises a clan’s origin and identity
• Totems are therefore sacred objects, which reinforces collective conscience - shared
values and moral beliefs - so in this way, religion acts as a glue that binds members of
society together
• One of the Aboriginal tribes, came together periodically to perform rituals. In collective
ceremonials, a sense of group solidarity is heightened and a rmed, which is known as
collective e ervescence (the heightened feeling of energy generated in collective
gatherings)
• Durkheim argues in worshipping the sacred, people are really worshipping society - god
and society are one, and the same thing
A03:
- He used secondary sources to develop his theory of religion, and it was based on
small-scale societies with a single religion (unrepresentative, outdated, etc..)
- Critics argue that religion can also be dysfunctional e.g. used to oppress women, can
segregate people so causes con ict (e.g. Muslims v Hindu)
Malinowski; (psychological functions)
- Many of his examples were drawn from his own eldwork in the Trobriand Islanders
fi ff ff fi fl fi fi fi ffi ff
, - Not only does religion promote social solidarity, but it also performs psychological
functions which helps them cope with 2 types of events; uncertainty and life crises
• Uncertainty = practical activities that cannot be fully predicted or controlled produces
tension and anxiety. Fishing is an important survival activity for the islanders - unlike
lagoon shing, he observed the islanders performed ‘canoe magic’ rituals before shing
in the open sea - this was used as it gave sherman a sense of control, reduces anxiety,
and rituals reinforce social solidarity
• Life crises = certain events such as birth, puberty and death can cause stress, upset
and anxiety. Malinowski noted that in all societies, these life crises are surrounded by
religious rituals - funeral rituals minimise disruption as religion gives meaning to these
events, reinforces social solidarity, and strong emotions could reduce commitment to
society
Parsons; (values and meaning)
- He developed further by identifying 2 other essential functions that religion performs in
modern society; value consensus and mechanism of adjustment
- Religious beliefs provide moral guidelines for conduct of behaviour - these guidelines
often underpin the legal systems of societies as well as social attitudes which are so
deeply ingrained through socialisation - this helps to promote value consensus
A02 OF VALUE CONSENSUS;
- Ten Commandments = ‘thou shall not kill’ - illegal to kill
- Shariah Law = stealing leads to punishment of hand being cut o in Islamic State
countries
- Religion also provides meaning to life; they answer existential questions to life, death,
pain, su ering and so on. This enables individuals to make sense of all experiences.
Religion provides what he called a mechanism of adjustment which helps to adjust to
di cult events or circumstances therefore maintaining their commitment to values.
A02 OF MECHANISM OF ADJUSTMENT;
- Ali Banat - Gifted with cancer — Muslim man who was diagnosed with cancer changed
his life for the better - he understood the importance of life, how important good deeds
were, and changed his values (e.g. living luxury to donating and starting a charity)
Marxism:
- "Religion is the opium of the masses” - Marx
ffi fiff fi ff fi
, - "Religion is a spiritual gin” - Lenin
- Marx viewed society as a system, and the driving force of the system was the economy
(capitalism).
The economy was known as the infrastructure (economic base), which determines and
in uences the superstructure (social institutions) to uphold and maintain it.
The superstructures transmit bourgeoise ideology which are capable of inverting our
perception of reality.
Religion is a powerful part of the superstructure, which re ects and maintains capitalist
ideology. This is an important element in the false class consciousness of the
proletariat.
Religion is rooted in societies that alienate, exploit, and oppress their members.
When such societies are replaced with communism, religion would no longer be
necessary.
A02;
- Hindu Caste Sytem;
• Uses religion to maintain and legitimise class inequalities
• It is created by putting people into di erent castes which determine their life choices
• Justi es it by making them believe that the castes come from your past deeds
• Maintains by preventing people from rebelling against the status quo - if they are good
now, then they will be in a higher caste in their next life
- “it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter
the kingdom of heaven.” - Luke 18:25
A03;
- Only focus on the negative e ects of religion (functionalism will argue that religion has
psychological functions, answers existential questions, creates value consensus etc..)
- Only focuses on how religion helps maintain class inequalities, and ignores gender
inequalities - women have an inferior position within religion, which limits and restricts
their rights and opportunities
- Neo-marxists will argue that the view is too deterministic, and that religion can also be
a force for social change e.g. Martin Luther King’s speech led civil rights movement to
end racial segregation
fl fi ff ff fl
, Feminism:
- Religion is a patriarchal institution that creates gender inequality between men and
women
- It preserves and justi es a patriarchal ideology that reproduces male power in society
A02 OF PATRIARCHY IN RELIGION:
- RELIGIOUS ORGANISATIONS = women are excluded from positions of power, so
cannot be religious leaders - ‘stained glass ceiling’ (a religious barrier that prevents
women from occupying positions of power)
PLACES OF WORSHIP = segregation between men and women, as women lead men
astray by distracting them
SACRED TEXTS = women are presented as secondary to men e.g. Mary known as the
mother of Jesus
RELIGIOUS LAWS AND CUSTOMS = double standards as men are allowed 4 wives but
women only allowed 1 husband who must be of the same religion
RELIGION SUBORDINATES AND MARGINALISES WOMEN
- Simone de Beauvoir;
• Argued that the oppressors (men) use religion to control the oppressed group (women)
• Religion targets women with messages that focus on them ful lling their role as wives
and mothers, and to tolerate inequality
• ‘Religion is and instrument of deception’, because it encourages women to have false
consciousness by accepting their secondary status on earth by promising them
equality in heaven
- Mary Daly;
• Used the sexual caste system to describe the inferior position women have, which she
refers to as a low caste system
• She claims that men have been able to use God to justify and maintain their power and
authority over women e.g. Adam and Eve creation story
• Women all over the world are oppressed through the sado-ritual syndrome which is
obsessed with purity - religion is able to colonise and mutilate the bodies of women
e.g. FGM, Indian suttee
RELIGION HAS NOT ALWAYS BEEN PATRIARCHAL
- Nawal el Saadawi;
• Denies that the oppression of women is directly caused by religion in general, or by
Islam in particular
• She noted that oppressive practices such as FGM have been attributed to the in uence
of Islam, but it is a practice which takes place in a number of countries and not all them
are Islamic
• She claims female oppression is due to patriarchy
• Men’s cultural power in Arab societies enable them to become scholars, shariah lawyers
and imams, so they can distort religion to serve their own interests e.g. FGM serves
the interests of men by enhancing their enjoyment of sexual intercourse while limiting
women’s pleasure
• Argues that the Quran ordered that both men and women be stones to death for
adultery, but this punishment was unlikely to fall on men in Arab societies
fi fi fl
De nition of religion;
- SUBSTANTIVE = focus on the substance or content of religion, like the belief in God
e.g. Christianity
Useful because it sets a speci c criteria which helps to draw a clear line between religious
and non-religious beliefs
Problem because it is too narrow/exclusive (e.g. to be religious you need to believe in a
God etc..)
- FUNCTIONAL = focus on the functions or roles religion performs for individuals or
society such as reinforcing social solidarity and answering ‘ultimate’ questions about
the meaning of life e.g. Buddhism
Useful because it is more inclusive, as it include a wide range of beliefs and practices and
diverts away from the traditional western concept of religion
Problem because it is too inclusive as everything can be considered as a religion (even
the non-religious)
- SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION = focus on how the term ‘religion’ is used by di erent
individuals, groups and organisations. Religion does not have a ‘single, common-sense
meaning’. e.g. Scientology
Useful because it is very inclusive as it is based on your own perspective
Problem because there is no objective de nition, so it’s hard to measure, compare,
operationalise etc.. and the lack of clarity makes it harder for sociologists to study religion
since people have widely di erent views (unreliable)
Functionalism;
- Durkheim; (elementary forms of religious life)
• Studied the religion of various Australian Aboriginal groups
• Durkheim saw their religion, totemism, as the simplest form of religion
• He argued totemism represents religion in its most elementary form
• A totem is an object that has a particular signi cance for a social group - each totem
symbolises a clan’s origin and identity
• Totems are therefore sacred objects, which reinforces collective conscience - shared
values and moral beliefs - so in this way, religion acts as a glue that binds members of
society together
• One of the Aboriginal tribes, came together periodically to perform rituals. In collective
ceremonials, a sense of group solidarity is heightened and a rmed, which is known as
collective e ervescence (the heightened feeling of energy generated in collective
gatherings)
• Durkheim argues in worshipping the sacred, people are really worshipping society - god
and society are one, and the same thing
A03:
- He used secondary sources to develop his theory of religion, and it was based on
small-scale societies with a single religion (unrepresentative, outdated, etc..)
- Critics argue that religion can also be dysfunctional e.g. used to oppress women, can
segregate people so causes con ict (e.g. Muslims v Hindu)
Malinowski; (psychological functions)
- Many of his examples were drawn from his own eldwork in the Trobriand Islanders
fi ff ff fi fl fi fi fi ffi ff
, - Not only does religion promote social solidarity, but it also performs psychological
functions which helps them cope with 2 types of events; uncertainty and life crises
• Uncertainty = practical activities that cannot be fully predicted or controlled produces
tension and anxiety. Fishing is an important survival activity for the islanders - unlike
lagoon shing, he observed the islanders performed ‘canoe magic’ rituals before shing
in the open sea - this was used as it gave sherman a sense of control, reduces anxiety,
and rituals reinforce social solidarity
• Life crises = certain events such as birth, puberty and death can cause stress, upset
and anxiety. Malinowski noted that in all societies, these life crises are surrounded by
religious rituals - funeral rituals minimise disruption as religion gives meaning to these
events, reinforces social solidarity, and strong emotions could reduce commitment to
society
Parsons; (values and meaning)
- He developed further by identifying 2 other essential functions that religion performs in
modern society; value consensus and mechanism of adjustment
- Religious beliefs provide moral guidelines for conduct of behaviour - these guidelines
often underpin the legal systems of societies as well as social attitudes which are so
deeply ingrained through socialisation - this helps to promote value consensus
A02 OF VALUE CONSENSUS;
- Ten Commandments = ‘thou shall not kill’ - illegal to kill
- Shariah Law = stealing leads to punishment of hand being cut o in Islamic State
countries
- Religion also provides meaning to life; they answer existential questions to life, death,
pain, su ering and so on. This enables individuals to make sense of all experiences.
Religion provides what he called a mechanism of adjustment which helps to adjust to
di cult events or circumstances therefore maintaining their commitment to values.
A02 OF MECHANISM OF ADJUSTMENT;
- Ali Banat - Gifted with cancer — Muslim man who was diagnosed with cancer changed
his life for the better - he understood the importance of life, how important good deeds
were, and changed his values (e.g. living luxury to donating and starting a charity)
Marxism:
- "Religion is the opium of the masses” - Marx
ffi fiff fi ff fi
, - "Religion is a spiritual gin” - Lenin
- Marx viewed society as a system, and the driving force of the system was the economy
(capitalism).
The economy was known as the infrastructure (economic base), which determines and
in uences the superstructure (social institutions) to uphold and maintain it.
The superstructures transmit bourgeoise ideology which are capable of inverting our
perception of reality.
Religion is a powerful part of the superstructure, which re ects and maintains capitalist
ideology. This is an important element in the false class consciousness of the
proletariat.
Religion is rooted in societies that alienate, exploit, and oppress their members.
When such societies are replaced with communism, religion would no longer be
necessary.
A02;
- Hindu Caste Sytem;
• Uses religion to maintain and legitimise class inequalities
• It is created by putting people into di erent castes which determine their life choices
• Justi es it by making them believe that the castes come from your past deeds
• Maintains by preventing people from rebelling against the status quo - if they are good
now, then they will be in a higher caste in their next life
- “it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter
the kingdom of heaven.” - Luke 18:25
A03;
- Only focus on the negative e ects of religion (functionalism will argue that religion has
psychological functions, answers existential questions, creates value consensus etc..)
- Only focuses on how religion helps maintain class inequalities, and ignores gender
inequalities - women have an inferior position within religion, which limits and restricts
their rights and opportunities
- Neo-marxists will argue that the view is too deterministic, and that religion can also be
a force for social change e.g. Martin Luther King’s speech led civil rights movement to
end racial segregation
fl fi ff ff fl
, Feminism:
- Religion is a patriarchal institution that creates gender inequality between men and
women
- It preserves and justi es a patriarchal ideology that reproduces male power in society
A02 OF PATRIARCHY IN RELIGION:
- RELIGIOUS ORGANISATIONS = women are excluded from positions of power, so
cannot be religious leaders - ‘stained glass ceiling’ (a religious barrier that prevents
women from occupying positions of power)
PLACES OF WORSHIP = segregation between men and women, as women lead men
astray by distracting them
SACRED TEXTS = women are presented as secondary to men e.g. Mary known as the
mother of Jesus
RELIGIOUS LAWS AND CUSTOMS = double standards as men are allowed 4 wives but
women only allowed 1 husband who must be of the same religion
RELIGION SUBORDINATES AND MARGINALISES WOMEN
- Simone de Beauvoir;
• Argued that the oppressors (men) use religion to control the oppressed group (women)
• Religion targets women with messages that focus on them ful lling their role as wives
and mothers, and to tolerate inequality
• ‘Religion is and instrument of deception’, because it encourages women to have false
consciousness by accepting their secondary status on earth by promising them
equality in heaven
- Mary Daly;
• Used the sexual caste system to describe the inferior position women have, which she
refers to as a low caste system
• She claims that men have been able to use God to justify and maintain their power and
authority over women e.g. Adam and Eve creation story
• Women all over the world are oppressed through the sado-ritual syndrome which is
obsessed with purity - religion is able to colonise and mutilate the bodies of women
e.g. FGM, Indian suttee
RELIGION HAS NOT ALWAYS BEEN PATRIARCHAL
- Nawal el Saadawi;
• Denies that the oppression of women is directly caused by religion in general, or by
Islam in particular
• She noted that oppressive practices such as FGM have been attributed to the in uence
of Islam, but it is a practice which takes place in a number of countries and not all them
are Islamic
• She claims female oppression is due to patriarchy
• Men’s cultural power in Arab societies enable them to become scholars, shariah lawyers
and imams, so they can distort religion to serve their own interests e.g. FGM serves
the interests of men by enhancing their enjoyment of sexual intercourse while limiting
women’s pleasure
• Argues that the Quran ordered that both men and women be stones to death for
adultery, but this punishment was unlikely to fall on men in Arab societies
fi fi fl
