Cognition in the Digital Age
Background artikel hoef je dus niet te leren:
Conducting Psychology Research in the Real World
By Matthias R. Mehl
University of Arizona
This article talks about how psychology experiments done in a lab have some limitations.
While lab experiments are great at showing cause and effect (internal validity), they don't
always reflect real-life situations (external validity). This means they can show
what could happen under controlled conditions, but not necessarily what does happen in
everyday life.
To make research more realistic, psychologists also do studies in the real world, known
as field research. These studies help us understand how behaviors and processes that were
studied in the lab work in normal, daily situations. For example,
in psychoneuroimmunology (the study of how stress affects the immune system), lab
experiments can show how stress impacts our immune response, but real-world studies help
us see how stress affects things like getting sick or recovering in everyday life.
In short, combining laboratory experiments with real-world research gives a fuller picture
of human behavior by improving ecological validity—how well results apply to real life.
Studying Daily Experiences
Researchers have developed methods to study daily life, moving away from highly controlled
lab studies since the mid-1970s. These methods, including the experience-sampling
method, ecological momentary assessment, and the diary method, involve collecting real-
time self-reports from participants about their thoughts, feelings, and activities throughout the
day. This typically involves multiple check-ins (e.g., five times a day) over a week.
Technology, particularly smartphones, has made it easier to collect this data, leading to
experience sampling becoming a widely accepted method in psychology research. These
techniques provide insights into what people actually do, think, and feel in real-life contexts,
yielding findings that traditional lab experiments cannot achieve.
For example, studies have shown patterns in positive and negative experiences leading up to
illnesses and how people's happiness varies with their levels of focus during tasks.
Additionally, the day reconstruction method allows participants to reflect on their previous
day, breaking it down into episodes to analyze mood and social interactions without
continuous sampling. Overall, these methods enhance our understanding of daily experiences
and their emotional impacts.
Studying Daily Behavior
Experience Sampling Methodology
Researchers use experience sampling to study everyday behavior, including social
interactions and activities. While laboratory studies rely on direct behavioral observation,
,capturing real-world behavior is more challenging. Funder highlights the difficulty of
providing detailed reports on participants' actions and contexts.
Naturalistic Observation Techniques
To address this, Mehl and colleagues developed the electronically activated recorder
(EAR) method. Participants carry a portable audio recorder that captures brief ambient
sounds periodically (e.g., 30 seconds every 12 minutes). This creates an "acoustic diary" of
participants' daily activities and social interactions without intrusive observation. Despite
initial discomfort, participants adapt to the presence of the recorder and behave naturally.
Findings from the EAR Method
In a cross-cultural study using the EAR method, Ramírez-Esparza and colleagues found that
although Americans considered themselves more talkative than Mexicans, they actually
spoke less. Similarly, Mehl's research debunked the myth that women are significantly more
talkative than men, revealing no substantial difference in word count between genders. These
findings show how naturalistic observation can challenge assumptions derived from other
research methods.
Additional Observational Methods
Other creative methods for unobtrusively assessing real-world behavior include time-lapse
photography to study crowd movement in urban spaces, observing personal and professional
environments to understand personality expression, and analyzing waste to measure
consumption habits accurately. Direct and nonreactive assessments of behavior are vital for
psychological research, as self-reports can be unreliable or biased.
Studying Daily Physiology
What Researchers Study
Researchers want to understand how our bodies react to everyday experiences and stress.
They look at how feelings like happiness or anger affect our physical health, especially in
real-life situations instead of just in labs.
Different Reactions to Stress
People can react differently to stress. For example, one person might have a slight increase in
heart rate during a lab test but a big jump when watching a soccer game. This shows that our
reactions can vary depending on the situation. White coat hypertension is a related
phenomenon where some people have high blood pressure at the doctor’s office but not at
home.
Tracking Physical Responses
Researchers use devices to measure physical responses while people go about their daily
lives. These devices can track things like heart rate, blood pressure, sweating, body
temperature, and even brain activity. Recently, they've also started measuring hormones like
cortisol, which is related to stress.
Key Research Findings
1. Emotions and Heart Health: A study found that daily emotions can impact heart
function in people with heart problems. Even normal feelings can affect their heart
activity in a significant way.
, 2. Stress and Cortisol: Another study showed that both current and expected stress can
lead to increased levels of cortisol in the body, while positive feelings can lower
cortisol levels.
Studying Online Behavior
Emergence of Online Behavior Research
As people spend more time online, researchers are starting to view online actions—like social
media posts, emails, and blogs—as important as face-to-face behavior. They want to study
how these virtual interactions impact our psychology and social life.
How Researchers Study Online Behavior
Researchers can analyze the language people use online, which provides valuable
psychological insights. For example, subtle differences in word choice can reveal a lot about
a person's feelings and thoughts.
Example Study: Emotional Responses After 9/11
One study looked at how over a thousand bloggers reacted to the September 11 attacks by
analyzing their posts from two months before and after the event. The researchers found that:
Immediately after the attacks, bloggers expressed more negative emotions and were
more socially engaged, seeking support and asking questions.
Within two weeks, their mood and social engagement returned to normal, but their
analytical thinking dropped below the usual level.
For several weeks, while their mood stabilized, their social interaction and analytical
thinking remained low, indicating a sense of social and cognitive fatigue.
Growing Interest in Social Media Research
Researchers are also exploring behavior on platforms like Facebook. For example, a study
involving 16 million Facebook users found that messages encouraging voting could
significantly influence actual voting behavior. Even if one person didn't vote, their friends
were also likely to be affected, leading to an estimated 340,000 additional votes.
Smartphone Psychology"
The Future of Research with Smartphones
Smartphones are becoming more than just tools for communication; they are expected to play
a significant role in collecting scientific data about our daily lives. These devices can
automatically gather a lot of information about how we interact with the world, thanks to
built-in sensors that track things like our location and social connections.
The Revolution in Psychology
Researchers believe that smartphones will revolutionize psychology, but they are still
figuring out how and when this will happen. With the potential for extensive data collection
comes challenges, such as ensuring user privacy and effectively analyzing the data.
Integration into Daily Life
It's likely that many current and future research methods will be integrated into smartphones,
which people carry with them throughout the day, from morning until bedtime. This
, integration could make it easier to gather real-world data on human behavior in a natural
setting.
Conclusion
This discussion highlights the importance of studying psychology outside the lab. To truly
understand human behavior, researchers need to explore the complexities of real life and find
ways to capture how people act in everyday situations.
TAAK 1
Attentional Capture Helps Explain Why Moral and Emotional
Content Go Viral
William J. Brady Yale University
Ana P. Gantman Brooklyn College
Jay J. Van Bavel
Abstract: Our social media newsfeeds are filled with a variety of content all battling for our limited attention. Across 3 studies, we
investigated whether moral and emotional content captures our attention more than other content and if this may help explain why this
content is more likely to go viral online. Using a combination of controlled lab experiments and nearly 50,000 political tweets, we found
that moral and emotional content are prioritized in early visual attention more than neutral content, and that such attentional capture is
associated with increased retweets during political conversations online. Further- more, we found that the differences in attentional capture
among moral and emotional stimuli could not be fully explained by differences in arousal. These studies suggest that attentional capture is 1
basic psychological process that helps explain the increased diffusion of moral and emotional content during political discourse on social
media, and shed light on ways in which political leaders, disinformation profiteers, marketers, and activist organizations can spread
moralized content by capitalizing on natural tendencies of our perceptual systems.
This article explores how much more attention moral and
emotional content gets compared to neutral content on social
media, and it links data from lab experiments measuring attention
to real-world social media behavior—specifically, how this content
spreads and gets shared online.
Social media has over 3 billion users, and with so much content competing for attention, only
the content that stands out gets noticed. Social media is described as an "attention economy,"
where ads, news, memes, political debates, and personal posts all fight for our limited
attention. Since paying attention is necessary for engaging with content (like, share,
comment), capturing attention is crucial for content to go viral and influence others,
especially in areas like politics and morality.
Research shows that content with moral or emotional messages is more likely to go viral, but
we don’t fully know why. This article looks at how moral and emotional content captures
more attention than neutral content and how that relates to social media sharing.
Key concepts include:
Attentional capture: This means certain content is able to "grab" our attention more
than other content, making us focus on it.
Background artikel hoef je dus niet te leren:
Conducting Psychology Research in the Real World
By Matthias R. Mehl
University of Arizona
This article talks about how psychology experiments done in a lab have some limitations.
While lab experiments are great at showing cause and effect (internal validity), they don't
always reflect real-life situations (external validity). This means they can show
what could happen under controlled conditions, but not necessarily what does happen in
everyday life.
To make research more realistic, psychologists also do studies in the real world, known
as field research. These studies help us understand how behaviors and processes that were
studied in the lab work in normal, daily situations. For example,
in psychoneuroimmunology (the study of how stress affects the immune system), lab
experiments can show how stress impacts our immune response, but real-world studies help
us see how stress affects things like getting sick or recovering in everyday life.
In short, combining laboratory experiments with real-world research gives a fuller picture
of human behavior by improving ecological validity—how well results apply to real life.
Studying Daily Experiences
Researchers have developed methods to study daily life, moving away from highly controlled
lab studies since the mid-1970s. These methods, including the experience-sampling
method, ecological momentary assessment, and the diary method, involve collecting real-
time self-reports from participants about their thoughts, feelings, and activities throughout the
day. This typically involves multiple check-ins (e.g., five times a day) over a week.
Technology, particularly smartphones, has made it easier to collect this data, leading to
experience sampling becoming a widely accepted method in psychology research. These
techniques provide insights into what people actually do, think, and feel in real-life contexts,
yielding findings that traditional lab experiments cannot achieve.
For example, studies have shown patterns in positive and negative experiences leading up to
illnesses and how people's happiness varies with their levels of focus during tasks.
Additionally, the day reconstruction method allows participants to reflect on their previous
day, breaking it down into episodes to analyze mood and social interactions without
continuous sampling. Overall, these methods enhance our understanding of daily experiences
and their emotional impacts.
Studying Daily Behavior
Experience Sampling Methodology
Researchers use experience sampling to study everyday behavior, including social
interactions and activities. While laboratory studies rely on direct behavioral observation,
,capturing real-world behavior is more challenging. Funder highlights the difficulty of
providing detailed reports on participants' actions and contexts.
Naturalistic Observation Techniques
To address this, Mehl and colleagues developed the electronically activated recorder
(EAR) method. Participants carry a portable audio recorder that captures brief ambient
sounds periodically (e.g., 30 seconds every 12 minutes). This creates an "acoustic diary" of
participants' daily activities and social interactions without intrusive observation. Despite
initial discomfort, participants adapt to the presence of the recorder and behave naturally.
Findings from the EAR Method
In a cross-cultural study using the EAR method, Ramírez-Esparza and colleagues found that
although Americans considered themselves more talkative than Mexicans, they actually
spoke less. Similarly, Mehl's research debunked the myth that women are significantly more
talkative than men, revealing no substantial difference in word count between genders. These
findings show how naturalistic observation can challenge assumptions derived from other
research methods.
Additional Observational Methods
Other creative methods for unobtrusively assessing real-world behavior include time-lapse
photography to study crowd movement in urban spaces, observing personal and professional
environments to understand personality expression, and analyzing waste to measure
consumption habits accurately. Direct and nonreactive assessments of behavior are vital for
psychological research, as self-reports can be unreliable or biased.
Studying Daily Physiology
What Researchers Study
Researchers want to understand how our bodies react to everyday experiences and stress.
They look at how feelings like happiness or anger affect our physical health, especially in
real-life situations instead of just in labs.
Different Reactions to Stress
People can react differently to stress. For example, one person might have a slight increase in
heart rate during a lab test but a big jump when watching a soccer game. This shows that our
reactions can vary depending on the situation. White coat hypertension is a related
phenomenon where some people have high blood pressure at the doctor’s office but not at
home.
Tracking Physical Responses
Researchers use devices to measure physical responses while people go about their daily
lives. These devices can track things like heart rate, blood pressure, sweating, body
temperature, and even brain activity. Recently, they've also started measuring hormones like
cortisol, which is related to stress.
Key Research Findings
1. Emotions and Heart Health: A study found that daily emotions can impact heart
function in people with heart problems. Even normal feelings can affect their heart
activity in a significant way.
, 2. Stress and Cortisol: Another study showed that both current and expected stress can
lead to increased levels of cortisol in the body, while positive feelings can lower
cortisol levels.
Studying Online Behavior
Emergence of Online Behavior Research
As people spend more time online, researchers are starting to view online actions—like social
media posts, emails, and blogs—as important as face-to-face behavior. They want to study
how these virtual interactions impact our psychology and social life.
How Researchers Study Online Behavior
Researchers can analyze the language people use online, which provides valuable
psychological insights. For example, subtle differences in word choice can reveal a lot about
a person's feelings and thoughts.
Example Study: Emotional Responses After 9/11
One study looked at how over a thousand bloggers reacted to the September 11 attacks by
analyzing their posts from two months before and after the event. The researchers found that:
Immediately after the attacks, bloggers expressed more negative emotions and were
more socially engaged, seeking support and asking questions.
Within two weeks, their mood and social engagement returned to normal, but their
analytical thinking dropped below the usual level.
For several weeks, while their mood stabilized, their social interaction and analytical
thinking remained low, indicating a sense of social and cognitive fatigue.
Growing Interest in Social Media Research
Researchers are also exploring behavior on platforms like Facebook. For example, a study
involving 16 million Facebook users found that messages encouraging voting could
significantly influence actual voting behavior. Even if one person didn't vote, their friends
were also likely to be affected, leading to an estimated 340,000 additional votes.
Smartphone Psychology"
The Future of Research with Smartphones
Smartphones are becoming more than just tools for communication; they are expected to play
a significant role in collecting scientific data about our daily lives. These devices can
automatically gather a lot of information about how we interact with the world, thanks to
built-in sensors that track things like our location and social connections.
The Revolution in Psychology
Researchers believe that smartphones will revolutionize psychology, but they are still
figuring out how and when this will happen. With the potential for extensive data collection
comes challenges, such as ensuring user privacy and effectively analyzing the data.
Integration into Daily Life
It's likely that many current and future research methods will be integrated into smartphones,
which people carry with them throughout the day, from morning until bedtime. This
, integration could make it easier to gather real-world data on human behavior in a natural
setting.
Conclusion
This discussion highlights the importance of studying psychology outside the lab. To truly
understand human behavior, researchers need to explore the complexities of real life and find
ways to capture how people act in everyday situations.
TAAK 1
Attentional Capture Helps Explain Why Moral and Emotional
Content Go Viral
William J. Brady Yale University
Ana P. Gantman Brooklyn College
Jay J. Van Bavel
Abstract: Our social media newsfeeds are filled with a variety of content all battling for our limited attention. Across 3 studies, we
investigated whether moral and emotional content captures our attention more than other content and if this may help explain why this
content is more likely to go viral online. Using a combination of controlled lab experiments and nearly 50,000 political tweets, we found
that moral and emotional content are prioritized in early visual attention more than neutral content, and that such attentional capture is
associated with increased retweets during political conversations online. Further- more, we found that the differences in attentional capture
among moral and emotional stimuli could not be fully explained by differences in arousal. These studies suggest that attentional capture is 1
basic psychological process that helps explain the increased diffusion of moral and emotional content during political discourse on social
media, and shed light on ways in which political leaders, disinformation profiteers, marketers, and activist organizations can spread
moralized content by capitalizing on natural tendencies of our perceptual systems.
This article explores how much more attention moral and
emotional content gets compared to neutral content on social
media, and it links data from lab experiments measuring attention
to real-world social media behavior—specifically, how this content
spreads and gets shared online.
Social media has over 3 billion users, and with so much content competing for attention, only
the content that stands out gets noticed. Social media is described as an "attention economy,"
where ads, news, memes, political debates, and personal posts all fight for our limited
attention. Since paying attention is necessary for engaging with content (like, share,
comment), capturing attention is crucial for content to go viral and influence others,
especially in areas like politics and morality.
Research shows that content with moral or emotional messages is more likely to go viral, but
we don’t fully know why. This article looks at how moral and emotional content captures
more attention than neutral content and how that relates to social media sharing.
Key concepts include:
Attentional capture: This means certain content is able to "grab" our attention more
than other content, making us focus on it.
