Communicatie en gedrag in organisaties
Hoofdstuk 5 (Learning)
Learning: the process of acquiring knowledge through experience
which leads to a lasting change in behavior.
The learning curve →
- Learning is not a smooth process, but changes in pace over
time.
- The learner’s ability develops slowly at first, then
accelerates and develops more quickly.
Two main approaches to learning
(1) Behaviorist psychology (‘stimulus-response’)
- What we learn are chains of muscle movements.
- Mental processes are not observable and are not valid issues of
study.
- Studies actions (behavior).
- Learning by trial and error →
(2) Cognitive psychology (‘information processing’)
- What we learn are mental structures.
- Mental processes can be studied by inference (gevolgtrekking),
although they cannot be observed directly.
- Studies thoughts (cognition).
- Learning by insight and understanding.
(1) The behaviorist approach
Conditioning: behavioral change to due an association between existing
behavior and a stimulus/consequence.
→ Example: when someone’s phone rings, you automatically check your
own phone, because you associate that sound with a personal message.
- Classical respondent conditioning (Pavlov): stimulus > behavior.
- Instrumental/operant conditioning (Skinner): behavior >
consequence.
Feedback: information about the outcomes of your behavior.
→ Feedback can be rewarding or punishing.
Behavior modification: a technique for encouraging desired
behaviors and discouraging unwanted behaviors using operant
conditioning.
- Positive reinforcement
Encourage desirable behaviors by introducing positive
consequences when the desired behavior occurs.
- Negative reinforcement
Encourage desirable behaviors by withdrawing negative
consequences when the desired behavior occurs.
- Punishment
Discourage undesirable behaviors by applying negative
consequences or withholding a positive outcome.
- Extinction
, Attempt to eliminate undesirable behaviors by attaching no consequences.
(2) The cognitive approach
Cybernetic analogy: an explanation of the learning
process based on the components and operation of a
feedback control system.
- Intrinsic feedback: information which comes
from within (self-generated feedback), such as
muscles, joints, skin.
- Extrinsic feedback: information which comes from our environment, such as the visual and
aural information needed to drive a car.
Feedback not only reinforces behavior, but also psychological constructs such as values, beliefs,
motives.
Socialization: the process by which new members learn the value system, the norms, and the
required behavior patterns of the society, organization or group which they are entering.
We learn new behaviors by observing and copying others, through behavioral modelling.
= Learning how to act by observing and copying the behavior of others.
→ Involves 4 processes;
1. Attention: focus on the key behavior.
2. Retention: recall the role model’s behavior when they are not present.
3. Production: reproduce the behavior.
4. Reinforcement: receive reinforcement?
Provisional selves: the personal experiments that we carry out with regard to how we act and
interact in new organizational roles, based on our observations of the behavior of others.
Three stages:
1. Observing
2. Experimenting
3. Evaluating
Knowledge management in organizations (niet in boek)
The process of organizing and distributing an organization’s collective wisdom so the right information
gets to the right people at the right time.
Explicit knowledge: clearly articulated, documented well, available to others.
Tacit knowledge: difficult to codify, specified on the individual, barely available to others.
,Hoofdstuk 6 (Personality)
Personality: the psychological qualities that influence an individual’s characteristic behavior patterns,
in a stable and distinctive manner.
Psychometrics: the systematic measurement and assessment of intelligence, aptitudes and
personality.
Two approaches to personality assessment
1. Nomothetic methods are the basis for most psychometrics, using ‘tick box’ questionnaires
which are easy to score.
→ identification of traits and the systematic relationships between different aspects of
personality.
2. Idiographic methods use open-ended approaches to capture an individual’s unique
characteristics.
Types and traits
Type: a descriptive label for a distinct pattern of personality characteristics, such as introvert,
extravert, neurotic.
Trait: a relatively stable quality or attribute of an individual’s personality,
influencing behavior in a particular direction.
Personality types
Hippocrates - somatotypes: your personality depends on your body, size
and shape.
Chronotype: a cluster of personality traits that can affect whether
someone is more active and performs better in the morning or evening.
- Morning people tend to be agreeable, optimistic, stable, proactive
and satisfied with life.
- Evening people can be creative, intelligent, humorous, extraverted, neurotic, depressed.
Type A personality: a combination of emotions and behaviors, characterized by ambition, hostility,
impatience and a sense of constant time-pressure.
→ Competitive, need for achievement, aggressive.
Type B personality: a combination of emotions and behaviors, characterized by relaxation, low focus
on achievement, and ability to take time to enjoy leisure.
→ No ‘need’ for achievement, easygoing, speaks
slowly.
Stress (Type A) →
- Interaction between personality, work pressure
and other environmental factors.
- Consequences for organization: little effort,
poor performance, absence, accidents,
damaged relationships.
Personality traits
, The Big Five - OCEAN
1. Openness: range of interest
2. Conscientiousness: order and precision
3. Extraversion: level of comfort with relationships
4. Agreeableness: get along with others
5. Neuroticism: tendency to keep a balanced emotional state
→ HEXACO model = Big Five + honesty-humility
Hoofdstuk 5 (Learning)
Learning: the process of acquiring knowledge through experience
which leads to a lasting change in behavior.
The learning curve →
- Learning is not a smooth process, but changes in pace over
time.
- The learner’s ability develops slowly at first, then
accelerates and develops more quickly.
Two main approaches to learning
(1) Behaviorist psychology (‘stimulus-response’)
- What we learn are chains of muscle movements.
- Mental processes are not observable and are not valid issues of
study.
- Studies actions (behavior).
- Learning by trial and error →
(2) Cognitive psychology (‘information processing’)
- What we learn are mental structures.
- Mental processes can be studied by inference (gevolgtrekking),
although they cannot be observed directly.
- Studies thoughts (cognition).
- Learning by insight and understanding.
(1) The behaviorist approach
Conditioning: behavioral change to due an association between existing
behavior and a stimulus/consequence.
→ Example: when someone’s phone rings, you automatically check your
own phone, because you associate that sound with a personal message.
- Classical respondent conditioning (Pavlov): stimulus > behavior.
- Instrumental/operant conditioning (Skinner): behavior >
consequence.
Feedback: information about the outcomes of your behavior.
→ Feedback can be rewarding or punishing.
Behavior modification: a technique for encouraging desired
behaviors and discouraging unwanted behaviors using operant
conditioning.
- Positive reinforcement
Encourage desirable behaviors by introducing positive
consequences when the desired behavior occurs.
- Negative reinforcement
Encourage desirable behaviors by withdrawing negative
consequences when the desired behavior occurs.
- Punishment
Discourage undesirable behaviors by applying negative
consequences or withholding a positive outcome.
- Extinction
, Attempt to eliminate undesirable behaviors by attaching no consequences.
(2) The cognitive approach
Cybernetic analogy: an explanation of the learning
process based on the components and operation of a
feedback control system.
- Intrinsic feedback: information which comes
from within (self-generated feedback), such as
muscles, joints, skin.
- Extrinsic feedback: information which comes from our environment, such as the visual and
aural information needed to drive a car.
Feedback not only reinforces behavior, but also psychological constructs such as values, beliefs,
motives.
Socialization: the process by which new members learn the value system, the norms, and the
required behavior patterns of the society, organization or group which they are entering.
We learn new behaviors by observing and copying others, through behavioral modelling.
= Learning how to act by observing and copying the behavior of others.
→ Involves 4 processes;
1. Attention: focus on the key behavior.
2. Retention: recall the role model’s behavior when they are not present.
3. Production: reproduce the behavior.
4. Reinforcement: receive reinforcement?
Provisional selves: the personal experiments that we carry out with regard to how we act and
interact in new organizational roles, based on our observations of the behavior of others.
Three stages:
1. Observing
2. Experimenting
3. Evaluating
Knowledge management in organizations (niet in boek)
The process of organizing and distributing an organization’s collective wisdom so the right information
gets to the right people at the right time.
Explicit knowledge: clearly articulated, documented well, available to others.
Tacit knowledge: difficult to codify, specified on the individual, barely available to others.
,Hoofdstuk 6 (Personality)
Personality: the psychological qualities that influence an individual’s characteristic behavior patterns,
in a stable and distinctive manner.
Psychometrics: the systematic measurement and assessment of intelligence, aptitudes and
personality.
Two approaches to personality assessment
1. Nomothetic methods are the basis for most psychometrics, using ‘tick box’ questionnaires
which are easy to score.
→ identification of traits and the systematic relationships between different aspects of
personality.
2. Idiographic methods use open-ended approaches to capture an individual’s unique
characteristics.
Types and traits
Type: a descriptive label for a distinct pattern of personality characteristics, such as introvert,
extravert, neurotic.
Trait: a relatively stable quality or attribute of an individual’s personality,
influencing behavior in a particular direction.
Personality types
Hippocrates - somatotypes: your personality depends on your body, size
and shape.
Chronotype: a cluster of personality traits that can affect whether
someone is more active and performs better in the morning or evening.
- Morning people tend to be agreeable, optimistic, stable, proactive
and satisfied with life.
- Evening people can be creative, intelligent, humorous, extraverted, neurotic, depressed.
Type A personality: a combination of emotions and behaviors, characterized by ambition, hostility,
impatience and a sense of constant time-pressure.
→ Competitive, need for achievement, aggressive.
Type B personality: a combination of emotions and behaviors, characterized by relaxation, low focus
on achievement, and ability to take time to enjoy leisure.
→ No ‘need’ for achievement, easygoing, speaks
slowly.
Stress (Type A) →
- Interaction between personality, work pressure
and other environmental factors.
- Consequences for organization: little effort,
poor performance, absence, accidents,
damaged relationships.
Personality traits
, The Big Five - OCEAN
1. Openness: range of interest
2. Conscientiousness: order and precision
3. Extraversion: level of comfort with relationships
4. Agreeableness: get along with others
5. Neuroticism: tendency to keep a balanced emotional state
→ HEXACO model = Big Five + honesty-humility
