1
Overview of psychotherapy summary
Week 1
Analytical psychotherapy
Analytical psychotherapy, created by Carl Gustav Jung, builds upon Freud’s and Adler’s perspectives.
Analytical psychotherapy offers a map of the human psyche that encompasses conscious and
unconscious elements, including both a transpersonal (archetypal) and personal layer in the
unconscious. The goals of psychotherapy are reintegration, self-knowledge, and individuation.
Therapy taps into the healing and self-regulating potential of the psyche by an encounter between
the interacting personalities of patient and therapist.
Basic concepts
The psyche is central to Jung’s psychological system, which is the inner realm of personality that
balances the outer reality of material objects. He defined psyche as a combination of spirit, soul, and
idea; he viewed psychic reality as the sum of conscious and unconscious in processes. This inner
world influences biochemical processes, affects instincts, and determines one’s perception of outer
reality. Thus, what people perceive is in large part determined by who they are. The reality of the
psyche was Jung’s working hypothesis, confirmed through material (e.g., fantasy). He mapped the
psyche as a whole, key aspects include personal and collective unconscious, and a personal and
collective consciousness.
Personal unconscious: not only material unacceptable to one’s ego and superego and
therefore repressed, but also material unimportant to the psyche, temporarily/permanently
dropped out of consciousness. It also contains undeveloped parts of one’s personality not
admitted to consciousness and elements rising from the collective unconscious.
Collective unconscious: the vast, hidden psychic resources shared by all humans. He found
the same basic motifs expressed in fantasies, dreams etc. Images that emerge out of
collective unconscious are shared by all people but modified by their own experiences. Jung
called these motifs archetypal images and saw the collective unconscious as organized in
underlying patterns.
- An archetype is an organizing principle, a system of readiness, and a dynamic nucleus of
energy. Humans have an inherited predisposition to form their personalities and to view
reality according to universal inner patterns.
- Archetypes can be seen as pathways along whose course energy flows from the
collective unconscious into consciousness and action. There are a lot of archetypical
images, and they can reappear when analogous situations arise.
While the collective unconscious reveals itself by archetypal images, the personal
unconsciousness makes itself known through complexes. Archetypal images flow
from the collective unconscious into the personal unconsciousness by a complex (= a
sensitive, energy-filled cluster of emotions). Jung’s idea of complex came from
research on the Word Association Test, in which he termed the reactions complexes
(=emotionally charged associations of ideas and feelings that act as magnets to draw
a net of imagery, memories, and ideas into the track). Jung first called his form of
psychoanalysis Complex Psychology.
Jung believed that a complex can have restricting, upsetting, or other disturbing
consequences, but also positive consequences that brings important things into
consciousness. Complexes demand personal confrontation and response that can
promote a person’s development and growth. One can relate to a complex positively
by meeting its demand, but this takes hard psychological work. Many people try to
manage a complex by projecting its contents (projection: attributing to another
person something that belongs to one’s own personality). A person can also avoid a
,2
complex by repression. In extreme cases, a complex may overpower an individual so
that the person loses touch with reality, becoming psychotic.
Jung didn’t see the unconscious as something that needed to become conscious but felt that
individuals grow toward wholeness when both conscious and unconscious parts of the mind work in
harmony. Neurosis contained the seeds for its own cure and has the energy for growth and healing,
because of the natural movement toward balance and self-healing. The Jungian analyst promotes
balance, growth, and integration.
Other systems
Psychology and modern psychotherapeutic systems frequently ignore Jung’s influence. There are
various reasons for this, including the difficulty of Jung’s writing style and the tendency of
psychologists to believe what they’ve heard about Jung rather than reading what he wrote.
Psychologists avoid ‘soft’ science and avoid a mystical system. In reality, Jung’s approach to
psychotherapy has contributed much to psychology and shouldn’t be overlooked. Jung developed his
own form of psychoanalysis and treated patients before he met Freud, but Freud’s exploration of the
unconscious through free association, dreams, and early childhood experiences in the formation of
personality were important to Jung. Jung focused on the complex as road to the unconscious, while
Freud emphasized the importance of dreams. However, Jung saw dreams as more meaningful than
simple wish fulfillments. For Jung, Freud’s Oedipus complex was only one of many possible
complexes and not the most important one. Sexuality and aggression, rather than being the sole
channels for the expression of libido, were only two of its many possible routes. Neurosis has many
causes (not only sexual problems). The most salient difference between Freud and Jung resulted
from Jung’s belief that the quest for meaning was as strong a need as the sex drive.
Jung believed that some profit most from Freudian analysis, others from Adlerian analysis, and
others from Jungian analysis. Both Adler and Jung held that dreams can reveal what an individual
wanted not to recognize in him/herself (shadow aspects of personality). They both believed that
dreams reveal the underlying pattern of the way an individual relates to the world. Adler and Jung
stressed the importance of first memories, and of fulfilling life tasks and one’s duties to society. Jung
taught that unless these tasks were met, neurosis would result. They both met the patient on more
equal footing (face-to-face sitting) than Freud (free association on couch). Finally, both Adler and
Jung believed that psychotherapy should look to the future and past.
Life-span psychologists are highly influenced by Jung and express Jung’s ideas of individuation over
the life span. Gestalt therapy is an extension of Jung’s method of dream interpretation. Sullivan’s
good me and bad me reflect Jung’s concepts of positive and negative shadow (the rejected or
unrecognized parts of one’s personality). Lowen’s bioenergetic theory follows Jung’s theory of
typology. Holistic therapies share with Jung the idea of a person made up of many parts in service to
the whole, with the individual having an urge toward growth and healing. Self-actualizing theories
(Maslow) stress the optimistic parts of Jung’s psychology. Neo-Freudian ego psychology (e.g.,
Melanie Klein) shares much with Jungian thought that they may produce a hybrid. Jung’s emphasis
on the value of being and doing, and his trust in religious or mystical feelings, are similar to Asian
psychotherapies.
History
Precursors
During the era of scientific positivism, Jung’s teachers emphasized a rational, optimistic, and
progressive view of human nature. Nevertheless, Jung was drawn to romanticism, which valued the
irrational, the occult, the mysterious and the unconscious (more pessimistic view of human nature).
According to romantic philosophy, humans were divided and polarized; they yearned for a unity and
wholeness that has been lost. Jung is strongly influenced by Nietzsche, Carus, and Schopenhauer.
Ellenberger also emphasized transference (feelings the patient projects onto the analyst) and
,3
countertransference (ways in which the analyst is influenced by patients’ projections). Janet also
influenced Jung. For both, the dedication of the doctor and the harmony between doctor and patient
were major element in cures.
Beginnings
Jung wrote ‘Our way of looking at things is conditioned by what we are’. He believed all psychological
theories were subjective, reflecting the personal history of their founders. Jung experienced his
mother as having two sides. He feared one side and saw one side as comfortable. Jung’s efforts to
integrate these aspects of his mother found form in his depiction of feminine archetypal images. Jung
was concerned with multiple personality, trance states, hysteria, and hypnosis. When working at a
mental illness center, he became involved with the lives of mentally disturbed patients. Their inner
worlds intrigued him and his exploration of the symbolic universe of a schizophrenic patient was a
major source of Jung’s study on schizophrenia. At Burgholzli, Jung developed psychological tests (e.g.,
Word Association Test), which were the first demonstration of the reality of the unconscious. This
work led Jung to begin a correspondence with Freud. Freud saw Jung as his successor. However,
divergent perceptions and their conflicting personalities caused them to separate. Jung wrote The
Psychology of the Unconscious (1911), which set forth his own form of psychoanalysis, in which myth,
cultural history, and personal psychology were combined. After his break with Freud, Jung suffered a
period of extreme introversion (creative illness). Jung’s emergence from his period of creative illness
was signaled by the publication of his Psychological Types and his interest in the unconscious.
Current status
Interest in Jungian psychology is growing as the incompleteness of positivistic science becomes more
apparent and the world becomes increasingly complex. In spite of the dismissal of analytical
psychotherapy by some psychologists, there’s a growing need for it. Training varies widely, but it
usually involves an analysis, supervision, coursework, examinations, and a clinical dissertation. The
average length of training is 6-8 years. Interest in child analysis, group work, body work, and art
therapy is increasing, as is the interest in a hybrid of Jungian psychology and post-Freudian object
relations theory. Jung’s anima-animus concept has been reformulated. Anima is a feminine
archetypal image most often represented through the feminine part of a man; animus is a masculine
archetypal image most often represented through the masculine part of a woman. There has been an
easing of the bad feelings between the various schools, that divided since Freud, Adler, and Jung
parted was. The National Accreditation Association for Psychoanalysis includes psychologists from
different schools. Multiculturalism is increasing in Jungian psychology.
Personality
Theory of personality
Jung’s theory of personality rests on the concept of a dynamic unity of all parts of a person. The
psyche is made up of conscious and unconscious components with connections to the collective
unconscious. According to Jung, our conscious understanding of who we are comes from two
sources:
- Encounters with social reality (e.g., things people tell us about ourselves)
- What we deduce from our observation of others (if others agree with our self-
assessment, we are normal; if they disagree, we are abnormal).
Each individual has a personal unconscious, which can only be approached through dreams and
through analysis. The personal unconsciousness is affected by the collective unconscious (an
inherited human factor that expresses itself in the personal unconsciousness by means of archetypal
images and complexes). So, there are 2 aspects of the human psyche:
1. Consciousness (accessible) – one’s senses, intellect, emotions, and desires
2. Unconsciousness (inaccessible)- containing the personal unconsciousness (elements of
personal experience we’ve forgotten or denied) and the collective consciousness.
, 4
Jung defined the Self as archetypal energy that orders and integrates the personality, an
encompassing wholeness out of which personality evolves. The Self is the goal of personal
development. The infant starts as a unitary Self, which fragments into subsystems. Through this
fragmentation, mind and consciousness develop. The ego (most important part of the Self) appears
as the young child gains some sense of identity as an independent being. The ego becomes the “I” –
an entity comprising everything a person believes himself or herself to be, including thoughts,
feelings, wants, and sensations. The ego, as the center of consciousness, mediates between the
unconscious realm and the outer world. Creating a strong and resilient ego is part of human
development.
The personal shadow balances the ego in the personal unconscious. The shadow contains everything
that could/should be part of the ego but that the ego denies or refuses to develop. It can contain
both negative and positive aspects. Shadow elements often appear in dreams in attacking forms of
the same gender as the dreamer; they also erupt into consciousness through projection onto hated
individuals. Confronting shadow material, making it and one’s response to it conscious, can reclaim
important parts of the personality to consciousness; these are essential tasks for mature personality.
Jung felt that humans could confront evil by becoming conscious of it. Facing evil meant becoming
conscious of what is in one’s own shadow, confronting archetypal images of evil.
The persona is the public ‘face’ of an individual in society, which shields the ego and reveals
appropriate aspects of it. Development of an adequate persona allows for the privacy of thoughts,
feelings, perceptions and ideas. People can identify with their persona, believing they are the role
they’ve chosen to play. Jung believes that the task of the first part of life was strengthening the ego,
taking one’s place in the world in relationships with others, and fulfilling one’s duty to society. The
task of second half of life was to reclaim undeveloped parts of oneself, fulfilling these aspects of
personality more completely. This process was called individuation, which refers to completion and
wholeness, including acceptance of negative parts of one’s personality. The mid-life crisis, looked at
this way, becomes a challenging opportunity for further development (opposed to Freud). Part of the
process of individuation concerns not only assimilation of personal shadow material but also
awareness and integration of the contrasexual elements in the psyche – the anima (an archetypal
image of the feminine) and animus (an archetypal image of the masculine), which serves as bridges
to unconscious. These are highly individual, based on a person’s experience of the opposite sex, and
cultural assumptions.
Jung’s most important contribution to personality theory is typology. Jung proposed that individuals
respond to the world in varying ways. Two basic responses are introversion and extraversion.
He saw introversion as natural and basic. Energy for the introvert flows predominantly
inward, with reality being the introvert’s reaction to an event, object, or person. They need
solitude to develop and maintain their inner worlds; but they value deep relationships.
The extravert’s reality consists of objective facts or incidents. They connect with reality
through external objects. While the introvert adapts outer reality to inner psychology, the
extravert adapts him/herself to the environment and people.
Jung described nations and people as being either being predominantly introverted
or extraverted.
Jung differentiated personality into functional types in his theory of typology, based on people’s
tendency to perceive reality primarily through one of four mental functions: thinking, feeling,
sensation, and intuition. Each of these functions can be experienced in an extraverted or introverted
way. For complete orientation all four functions should contribute equally.
Thinking facilitates cognition and judgment, feeling tells us how and to what extent a thing is
important, sensations convey reality through seeing, hearing, tasting, sensing etc. Intuition
enables us to divine the hidden possibilities in the background.
Overview of psychotherapy summary
Week 1
Analytical psychotherapy
Analytical psychotherapy, created by Carl Gustav Jung, builds upon Freud’s and Adler’s perspectives.
Analytical psychotherapy offers a map of the human psyche that encompasses conscious and
unconscious elements, including both a transpersonal (archetypal) and personal layer in the
unconscious. The goals of psychotherapy are reintegration, self-knowledge, and individuation.
Therapy taps into the healing and self-regulating potential of the psyche by an encounter between
the interacting personalities of patient and therapist.
Basic concepts
The psyche is central to Jung’s psychological system, which is the inner realm of personality that
balances the outer reality of material objects. He defined psyche as a combination of spirit, soul, and
idea; he viewed psychic reality as the sum of conscious and unconscious in processes. This inner
world influences biochemical processes, affects instincts, and determines one’s perception of outer
reality. Thus, what people perceive is in large part determined by who they are. The reality of the
psyche was Jung’s working hypothesis, confirmed through material (e.g., fantasy). He mapped the
psyche as a whole, key aspects include personal and collective unconscious, and a personal and
collective consciousness.
Personal unconscious: not only material unacceptable to one’s ego and superego and
therefore repressed, but also material unimportant to the psyche, temporarily/permanently
dropped out of consciousness. It also contains undeveloped parts of one’s personality not
admitted to consciousness and elements rising from the collective unconscious.
Collective unconscious: the vast, hidden psychic resources shared by all humans. He found
the same basic motifs expressed in fantasies, dreams etc. Images that emerge out of
collective unconscious are shared by all people but modified by their own experiences. Jung
called these motifs archetypal images and saw the collective unconscious as organized in
underlying patterns.
- An archetype is an organizing principle, a system of readiness, and a dynamic nucleus of
energy. Humans have an inherited predisposition to form their personalities and to view
reality according to universal inner patterns.
- Archetypes can be seen as pathways along whose course energy flows from the
collective unconscious into consciousness and action. There are a lot of archetypical
images, and they can reappear when analogous situations arise.
While the collective unconscious reveals itself by archetypal images, the personal
unconsciousness makes itself known through complexes. Archetypal images flow
from the collective unconscious into the personal unconsciousness by a complex (= a
sensitive, energy-filled cluster of emotions). Jung’s idea of complex came from
research on the Word Association Test, in which he termed the reactions complexes
(=emotionally charged associations of ideas and feelings that act as magnets to draw
a net of imagery, memories, and ideas into the track). Jung first called his form of
psychoanalysis Complex Psychology.
Jung believed that a complex can have restricting, upsetting, or other disturbing
consequences, but also positive consequences that brings important things into
consciousness. Complexes demand personal confrontation and response that can
promote a person’s development and growth. One can relate to a complex positively
by meeting its demand, but this takes hard psychological work. Many people try to
manage a complex by projecting its contents (projection: attributing to another
person something that belongs to one’s own personality). A person can also avoid a
,2
complex by repression. In extreme cases, a complex may overpower an individual so
that the person loses touch with reality, becoming psychotic.
Jung didn’t see the unconscious as something that needed to become conscious but felt that
individuals grow toward wholeness when both conscious and unconscious parts of the mind work in
harmony. Neurosis contained the seeds for its own cure and has the energy for growth and healing,
because of the natural movement toward balance and self-healing. The Jungian analyst promotes
balance, growth, and integration.
Other systems
Psychology and modern psychotherapeutic systems frequently ignore Jung’s influence. There are
various reasons for this, including the difficulty of Jung’s writing style and the tendency of
psychologists to believe what they’ve heard about Jung rather than reading what he wrote.
Psychologists avoid ‘soft’ science and avoid a mystical system. In reality, Jung’s approach to
psychotherapy has contributed much to psychology and shouldn’t be overlooked. Jung developed his
own form of psychoanalysis and treated patients before he met Freud, but Freud’s exploration of the
unconscious through free association, dreams, and early childhood experiences in the formation of
personality were important to Jung. Jung focused on the complex as road to the unconscious, while
Freud emphasized the importance of dreams. However, Jung saw dreams as more meaningful than
simple wish fulfillments. For Jung, Freud’s Oedipus complex was only one of many possible
complexes and not the most important one. Sexuality and aggression, rather than being the sole
channels for the expression of libido, were only two of its many possible routes. Neurosis has many
causes (not only sexual problems). The most salient difference between Freud and Jung resulted
from Jung’s belief that the quest for meaning was as strong a need as the sex drive.
Jung believed that some profit most from Freudian analysis, others from Adlerian analysis, and
others from Jungian analysis. Both Adler and Jung held that dreams can reveal what an individual
wanted not to recognize in him/herself (shadow aspects of personality). They both believed that
dreams reveal the underlying pattern of the way an individual relates to the world. Adler and Jung
stressed the importance of first memories, and of fulfilling life tasks and one’s duties to society. Jung
taught that unless these tasks were met, neurosis would result. They both met the patient on more
equal footing (face-to-face sitting) than Freud (free association on couch). Finally, both Adler and
Jung believed that psychotherapy should look to the future and past.
Life-span psychologists are highly influenced by Jung and express Jung’s ideas of individuation over
the life span. Gestalt therapy is an extension of Jung’s method of dream interpretation. Sullivan’s
good me and bad me reflect Jung’s concepts of positive and negative shadow (the rejected or
unrecognized parts of one’s personality). Lowen’s bioenergetic theory follows Jung’s theory of
typology. Holistic therapies share with Jung the idea of a person made up of many parts in service to
the whole, with the individual having an urge toward growth and healing. Self-actualizing theories
(Maslow) stress the optimistic parts of Jung’s psychology. Neo-Freudian ego psychology (e.g.,
Melanie Klein) shares much with Jungian thought that they may produce a hybrid. Jung’s emphasis
on the value of being and doing, and his trust in religious or mystical feelings, are similar to Asian
psychotherapies.
History
Precursors
During the era of scientific positivism, Jung’s teachers emphasized a rational, optimistic, and
progressive view of human nature. Nevertheless, Jung was drawn to romanticism, which valued the
irrational, the occult, the mysterious and the unconscious (more pessimistic view of human nature).
According to romantic philosophy, humans were divided and polarized; they yearned for a unity and
wholeness that has been lost. Jung is strongly influenced by Nietzsche, Carus, and Schopenhauer.
Ellenberger also emphasized transference (feelings the patient projects onto the analyst) and
,3
countertransference (ways in which the analyst is influenced by patients’ projections). Janet also
influenced Jung. For both, the dedication of the doctor and the harmony between doctor and patient
were major element in cures.
Beginnings
Jung wrote ‘Our way of looking at things is conditioned by what we are’. He believed all psychological
theories were subjective, reflecting the personal history of their founders. Jung experienced his
mother as having two sides. He feared one side and saw one side as comfortable. Jung’s efforts to
integrate these aspects of his mother found form in his depiction of feminine archetypal images. Jung
was concerned with multiple personality, trance states, hysteria, and hypnosis. When working at a
mental illness center, he became involved with the lives of mentally disturbed patients. Their inner
worlds intrigued him and his exploration of the symbolic universe of a schizophrenic patient was a
major source of Jung’s study on schizophrenia. At Burgholzli, Jung developed psychological tests (e.g.,
Word Association Test), which were the first demonstration of the reality of the unconscious. This
work led Jung to begin a correspondence with Freud. Freud saw Jung as his successor. However,
divergent perceptions and their conflicting personalities caused them to separate. Jung wrote The
Psychology of the Unconscious (1911), which set forth his own form of psychoanalysis, in which myth,
cultural history, and personal psychology were combined. After his break with Freud, Jung suffered a
period of extreme introversion (creative illness). Jung’s emergence from his period of creative illness
was signaled by the publication of his Psychological Types and his interest in the unconscious.
Current status
Interest in Jungian psychology is growing as the incompleteness of positivistic science becomes more
apparent and the world becomes increasingly complex. In spite of the dismissal of analytical
psychotherapy by some psychologists, there’s a growing need for it. Training varies widely, but it
usually involves an analysis, supervision, coursework, examinations, and a clinical dissertation. The
average length of training is 6-8 years. Interest in child analysis, group work, body work, and art
therapy is increasing, as is the interest in a hybrid of Jungian psychology and post-Freudian object
relations theory. Jung’s anima-animus concept has been reformulated. Anima is a feminine
archetypal image most often represented through the feminine part of a man; animus is a masculine
archetypal image most often represented through the masculine part of a woman. There has been an
easing of the bad feelings between the various schools, that divided since Freud, Adler, and Jung
parted was. The National Accreditation Association for Psychoanalysis includes psychologists from
different schools. Multiculturalism is increasing in Jungian psychology.
Personality
Theory of personality
Jung’s theory of personality rests on the concept of a dynamic unity of all parts of a person. The
psyche is made up of conscious and unconscious components with connections to the collective
unconscious. According to Jung, our conscious understanding of who we are comes from two
sources:
- Encounters with social reality (e.g., things people tell us about ourselves)
- What we deduce from our observation of others (if others agree with our self-
assessment, we are normal; if they disagree, we are abnormal).
Each individual has a personal unconscious, which can only be approached through dreams and
through analysis. The personal unconsciousness is affected by the collective unconscious (an
inherited human factor that expresses itself in the personal unconsciousness by means of archetypal
images and complexes). So, there are 2 aspects of the human psyche:
1. Consciousness (accessible) – one’s senses, intellect, emotions, and desires
2. Unconsciousness (inaccessible)- containing the personal unconsciousness (elements of
personal experience we’ve forgotten or denied) and the collective consciousness.
, 4
Jung defined the Self as archetypal energy that orders and integrates the personality, an
encompassing wholeness out of which personality evolves. The Self is the goal of personal
development. The infant starts as a unitary Self, which fragments into subsystems. Through this
fragmentation, mind and consciousness develop. The ego (most important part of the Self) appears
as the young child gains some sense of identity as an independent being. The ego becomes the “I” –
an entity comprising everything a person believes himself or herself to be, including thoughts,
feelings, wants, and sensations. The ego, as the center of consciousness, mediates between the
unconscious realm and the outer world. Creating a strong and resilient ego is part of human
development.
The personal shadow balances the ego in the personal unconscious. The shadow contains everything
that could/should be part of the ego but that the ego denies or refuses to develop. It can contain
both negative and positive aspects. Shadow elements often appear in dreams in attacking forms of
the same gender as the dreamer; they also erupt into consciousness through projection onto hated
individuals. Confronting shadow material, making it and one’s response to it conscious, can reclaim
important parts of the personality to consciousness; these are essential tasks for mature personality.
Jung felt that humans could confront evil by becoming conscious of it. Facing evil meant becoming
conscious of what is in one’s own shadow, confronting archetypal images of evil.
The persona is the public ‘face’ of an individual in society, which shields the ego and reveals
appropriate aspects of it. Development of an adequate persona allows for the privacy of thoughts,
feelings, perceptions and ideas. People can identify with their persona, believing they are the role
they’ve chosen to play. Jung believes that the task of the first part of life was strengthening the ego,
taking one’s place in the world in relationships with others, and fulfilling one’s duty to society. The
task of second half of life was to reclaim undeveloped parts of oneself, fulfilling these aspects of
personality more completely. This process was called individuation, which refers to completion and
wholeness, including acceptance of negative parts of one’s personality. The mid-life crisis, looked at
this way, becomes a challenging opportunity for further development (opposed to Freud). Part of the
process of individuation concerns not only assimilation of personal shadow material but also
awareness and integration of the contrasexual elements in the psyche – the anima (an archetypal
image of the feminine) and animus (an archetypal image of the masculine), which serves as bridges
to unconscious. These are highly individual, based on a person’s experience of the opposite sex, and
cultural assumptions.
Jung’s most important contribution to personality theory is typology. Jung proposed that individuals
respond to the world in varying ways. Two basic responses are introversion and extraversion.
He saw introversion as natural and basic. Energy for the introvert flows predominantly
inward, with reality being the introvert’s reaction to an event, object, or person. They need
solitude to develop and maintain their inner worlds; but they value deep relationships.
The extravert’s reality consists of objective facts or incidents. They connect with reality
through external objects. While the introvert adapts outer reality to inner psychology, the
extravert adapts him/herself to the environment and people.
Jung described nations and people as being either being predominantly introverted
or extraverted.
Jung differentiated personality into functional types in his theory of typology, based on people’s
tendency to perceive reality primarily through one of four mental functions: thinking, feeling,
sensation, and intuition. Each of these functions can be experienced in an extraverted or introverted
way. For complete orientation all four functions should contribute equally.
Thinking facilitates cognition and judgment, feeling tells us how and to what extent a thing is
important, sensations convey reality through seeing, hearing, tasting, sensing etc. Intuition
enables us to divine the hidden possibilities in the background.
