Lecture 1: Advertising: Sending and Receiving
Advertising: Sending and Receiving
Research shows that we are exposed to on average 1000 ads per day.
Functions of advertising
1. Existence of television, programs, newspapers, magazines, public events
2. Employment
3. Information function (that used to be the only goal of advertising)
4. Persuasion function
Persuasion function of advertising
= Forming, strengthening or changing attitudes through advertising
Hierarchy of effects is depicted with the DAGMAR model. It is assumed that advertising affects
these cognitive processes in a very specific order (Cognitive - affective - behavioral). It suggests
that we first become aware of the product and after becoming aware we try to understand the
product and relate it to our knowledge. Once the representation of the product is stored in our
memories, it can change our attitudes and thus our actions.
There are several limitations and criticism associated with this model. The model assumes that
people always go through a certain order of stages which is not always the case. The model
also suggests that people are h ighly involved, that is they are putting effort into processing all
the information given from the ads.
,Due to all the limitations of the DAGMAR model, a new hierarchy of effects model, the F CB
GRID tries to explain how people are influenced by ads. This model describes the effect of ads
according to the type of the product. The order of think-feel-do depends on the type of product
and the involvement of the consumer.
Processing advertising messages
There are four stages of processing that stretch from automatic/unconscious to conscious and
reflective.
,Preattentive analysis (scanning stage):
- Often, consumers learn about products incidentally (e.g., in newspaper, magazine, on
television, internet). Not much attention (scan info)
- BUT: Still impact through unconscious/implicit processes. Info gets in implicit memory
which can be retrieved later
Perceptual and conceptual processes are two processes that preattentive processing can rely
on:
1. Perceptual analysis: physical features (colours, contours). It was thought that those are
the only features processed during the preattentive analysis. This would mean that an
ad would only influence the viewer if the product shown in the ad was exactly the same
as when it is purchased.
2. Conceptual analysis: product use, usage situation. This means that one can also
understand what the product is used for. Thus, this can have effects even if the product
looks perceptually different from the ad.
Evidence: Experiment Shapiro (1999): goal was to show that incidental ad exposure can induce
conceptual processing of an advertisement. If memory would be based on physical processing
→ better memory when the product in catalogue is exactly the same as in ad. But, people in the
object in context condition had a better memory of the people in the isolated object condition.
Thus, when the object is in context, this facilitated memory, regardless of whether there was a
perceptual match between the ad stimulus at exposure and the product depiction at test.
Conclusion of the experiment: Incidental memory is mainly based on concept and not
necessarily on the physical features
Matching activation hypothesis: is based on hemispheric lateralization (different functions
assigned to the right and left hemisphere). When one hemisphere is activated (the left
hemisphere because a text is shown), the other (right) hemisphere is also triggered to process
other materials on which you do not pay focal attention to more fully.
Conclusion of experiment: Even if brand names are not consciously attended to, if they are put
in the right place they can be easily processed by the unused hemisphere (and ultimately
influence consumer attitudes and behavior)
Hedonic fluency
= the subjective ease with which a stimulus can be perceived and processed.
If a stimulus is easy to process, this elicits positive emotions, these positive emotions are thus
misattributed to the stimulus. There are two types of hedonic fluency:
1. Perceptual: for example easy to read fonda give more positive feelings to the ad
2. Conceptual: for example matches of products with situations/people in the ads
3. Familiarity is also an important factor that helps the ease of processing. This is related to
the theory of m
ere exposure effect. The more you are exposed to a neutral object, the
more positive feelings you have towards the object
, Focal attention
= after noticing a stimulus, it may be brought into conscious awareness where it is identified
and categorized. Two types of focal attention are
1. Voluntary attention: in order to pay voluntary attention you should be motivated to do so
(relevance of the topic/product). Besides motivation you should be able to pay attention
to the ad, which cannot happen when one is time pressured or distracted
2. Involuntary attention: stimuli need special features that make them stand out from the
background and capture conscious attention. It is especially effective when processing
motivation is low. There are three classes of stimuli that can attract involuntary
attention:
- Salience: The extent to which a stimulus is noticeably different from its
environment. Stimulus draws attention because it is different with respect to its
context and therefore possibly interesting.
- Vividness: Vivid stimuli are not context dependent like salient stimuli. According
to Nisbett and Ross (1980) vivid stimuli are emotionally interesting, concrete
image provoking and close to you in a spatial and temporal way to be effective.
These characteristics make a stimulus more relevant to you. Fear appeals are an
example of vivid ads.
- Novelty: the extent to which information is unfamiliar and unexpected. This
elicits a response of surprise (positive/negative), which results in extended
reasoning.
Comprehension
= is important for achieving persuasion, especially when careful and effortful information
processing is needed. Comprehension is really important for persuasion. 80% of all messages
are initially miscomprehended in some way. But sometimes a lack of understanding is not a
problem. This has to do with the truth effect of advertising which suggests that seeing is
believing: people tend to uncritically accept information, even when certain elements are not
fully comprehended (especially when one is distracted or unmotivated to process information).
Elaborative reasoning
= stimulus is actively related to previously stored consumer knowledge. This requires full
consciousness and motivations and ability to process should both be high.
There are three dimensions of elaborate reasoning:
1. Extent of thinking: how superficial/deep are you thinking about the ad/product/brand
2. Valence of thinking: how negative/positive are you thinking about the ad/product/brand
3. Object of thinking: about what you are thinking?
There are two types of objects of thinking
- self -schema: The way people see themselves (values, beliefs). When the product or
ad is framed in such a way that is consistent with your self-schema, then this will
Advertising: Sending and Receiving
Research shows that we are exposed to on average 1000 ads per day.
Functions of advertising
1. Existence of television, programs, newspapers, magazines, public events
2. Employment
3. Information function (that used to be the only goal of advertising)
4. Persuasion function
Persuasion function of advertising
= Forming, strengthening or changing attitudes through advertising
Hierarchy of effects is depicted with the DAGMAR model. It is assumed that advertising affects
these cognitive processes in a very specific order (Cognitive - affective - behavioral). It suggests
that we first become aware of the product and after becoming aware we try to understand the
product and relate it to our knowledge. Once the representation of the product is stored in our
memories, it can change our attitudes and thus our actions.
There are several limitations and criticism associated with this model. The model assumes that
people always go through a certain order of stages which is not always the case. The model
also suggests that people are h ighly involved, that is they are putting effort into processing all
the information given from the ads.
,Due to all the limitations of the DAGMAR model, a new hierarchy of effects model, the F CB
GRID tries to explain how people are influenced by ads. This model describes the effect of ads
according to the type of the product. The order of think-feel-do depends on the type of product
and the involvement of the consumer.
Processing advertising messages
There are four stages of processing that stretch from automatic/unconscious to conscious and
reflective.
,Preattentive analysis (scanning stage):
- Often, consumers learn about products incidentally (e.g., in newspaper, magazine, on
television, internet). Not much attention (scan info)
- BUT: Still impact through unconscious/implicit processes. Info gets in implicit memory
which can be retrieved later
Perceptual and conceptual processes are two processes that preattentive processing can rely
on:
1. Perceptual analysis: physical features (colours, contours). It was thought that those are
the only features processed during the preattentive analysis. This would mean that an
ad would only influence the viewer if the product shown in the ad was exactly the same
as when it is purchased.
2. Conceptual analysis: product use, usage situation. This means that one can also
understand what the product is used for. Thus, this can have effects even if the product
looks perceptually different from the ad.
Evidence: Experiment Shapiro (1999): goal was to show that incidental ad exposure can induce
conceptual processing of an advertisement. If memory would be based on physical processing
→ better memory when the product in catalogue is exactly the same as in ad. But, people in the
object in context condition had a better memory of the people in the isolated object condition.
Thus, when the object is in context, this facilitated memory, regardless of whether there was a
perceptual match between the ad stimulus at exposure and the product depiction at test.
Conclusion of the experiment: Incidental memory is mainly based on concept and not
necessarily on the physical features
Matching activation hypothesis: is based on hemispheric lateralization (different functions
assigned to the right and left hemisphere). When one hemisphere is activated (the left
hemisphere because a text is shown), the other (right) hemisphere is also triggered to process
other materials on which you do not pay focal attention to more fully.
Conclusion of experiment: Even if brand names are not consciously attended to, if they are put
in the right place they can be easily processed by the unused hemisphere (and ultimately
influence consumer attitudes and behavior)
Hedonic fluency
= the subjective ease with which a stimulus can be perceived and processed.
If a stimulus is easy to process, this elicits positive emotions, these positive emotions are thus
misattributed to the stimulus. There are two types of hedonic fluency:
1. Perceptual: for example easy to read fonda give more positive feelings to the ad
2. Conceptual: for example matches of products with situations/people in the ads
3. Familiarity is also an important factor that helps the ease of processing. This is related to
the theory of m
ere exposure effect. The more you are exposed to a neutral object, the
more positive feelings you have towards the object
, Focal attention
= after noticing a stimulus, it may be brought into conscious awareness where it is identified
and categorized. Two types of focal attention are
1. Voluntary attention: in order to pay voluntary attention you should be motivated to do so
(relevance of the topic/product). Besides motivation you should be able to pay attention
to the ad, which cannot happen when one is time pressured or distracted
2. Involuntary attention: stimuli need special features that make them stand out from the
background and capture conscious attention. It is especially effective when processing
motivation is low. There are three classes of stimuli that can attract involuntary
attention:
- Salience: The extent to which a stimulus is noticeably different from its
environment. Stimulus draws attention because it is different with respect to its
context and therefore possibly interesting.
- Vividness: Vivid stimuli are not context dependent like salient stimuli. According
to Nisbett and Ross (1980) vivid stimuli are emotionally interesting, concrete
image provoking and close to you in a spatial and temporal way to be effective.
These characteristics make a stimulus more relevant to you. Fear appeals are an
example of vivid ads.
- Novelty: the extent to which information is unfamiliar and unexpected. This
elicits a response of surprise (positive/negative), which results in extended
reasoning.
Comprehension
= is important for achieving persuasion, especially when careful and effortful information
processing is needed. Comprehension is really important for persuasion. 80% of all messages
are initially miscomprehended in some way. But sometimes a lack of understanding is not a
problem. This has to do with the truth effect of advertising which suggests that seeing is
believing: people tend to uncritically accept information, even when certain elements are not
fully comprehended (especially when one is distracted or unmotivated to process information).
Elaborative reasoning
= stimulus is actively related to previously stored consumer knowledge. This requires full
consciousness and motivations and ability to process should both be high.
There are three dimensions of elaborate reasoning:
1. Extent of thinking: how superficial/deep are you thinking about the ad/product/brand
2. Valence of thinking: how negative/positive are you thinking about the ad/product/brand
3. Object of thinking: about what you are thinking?
There are two types of objects of thinking
- self -schema: The way people see themselves (values, beliefs). When the product or
ad is framed in such a way that is consistent with your self-schema, then this will
