Samenvatting ‘psychological science’
Week 1
Hoofdstuk 1
Samenvatting:
1.1 Psychological Science Is the Study of Mind, Brain, and Behavior
Mind refers to mental activity, which results from biological processes within the brain.
Behavior describes the totality of observable human (or animal) actions. The term
psychologist is used broadly to describe someone whose career involves understanding mental
life or predicting behavior.
1.2 Psychological Science Teaches Critical Thinking
Learning to think critically improves how people process information. Amiable skepticism
requires a careful examination of how well evidence supports a conclusion. Using critical
thinking skills and understanding the methods of psychological science are important for
evaluating research reported in the popular media.
1.3 Psychological Science Helps Us Understand Biased or Inaccurate Thinking
People engage in common biases in thinking. These biases probably evolved along with the
ability to quickly categorize information and make decisions, but they often result in faulty
conclusions. Some common biases in thinking include ignoring evidence (confirmation bias),
seeing relationships that do not exist, accepting after-the-fact explanations, and taking mental
shortcuts.
,1.4 You Be the Psychologist: Why Are People Unaware of Their Weaknesses?
People often fail to see their own inadequacies. People sometimes lack the
expertise in a domain to know the difference between good and bad performance. Humans are
also motivated to think well of themselves, so they might not internalize valid criticism.
Thinking like a psychologist involves asking “why” about all aspects of human mental life
and behavior.
What Is the Scientific Scope of Psychology?
1.5 Many Psychological Questions Have a Long History The nature/nurture debate
questioned whether psychological characteristics are biologically innate or are acquired
through education, experience, and culture. Today we know nature and nurture interact and
their influences often cannot be separated. The mind/body problem questioned whether the
mind and body are separate and distinct or whether the mind is simply the subjective
experience of ongoing brain activity. Dualist notions about the separation of the brain and
mind have been replaced with the idea that the (physical) brain enables the mind.
1.6 Mental Processes and Behaviors Serve Functions for Individuals and Groups
Psychologists study mental activity and behavior using scientific methods. Following initial
attempts to understand individual components of the mind, the field coalesced around the idea
that the mind is too complex to understand as a collection of individual parts. Functionalism is
the idea that the mind evolved to solve specific problems in the environment. Human mental
activity, behavior, and even culture are guided by evolution and environmental challenges.
1.7 The Field of Psychology Spans the Range of Human Experience
Psychological science now encompasses the breadth of human experience.
Developmental psychologists focus on changes in mental activity and behavior across the life
span. Cognitive psychologists and cognitive neuroscientists seek to understand the building
blocks of thinking using tools that measure specific psychological, behavioral, and neural
processes. Clinical psychologists study disorders of the mind, and health psychology
examines the bidirectional relationship between mental life and physical health.
What Are the Latest Developments in Psychology?
1.8 Biology Is Increasingly Emphasized in Explaining Psychological Phenomena
Tremendous advances in neuroscience have revealed the working brain. New insights into the
immune, stress, and metabolic systems have revealed the complex ways that the rest of the
body influences the brain and vice versa. These advances are increasing our knowledge of
mind, brain, and behavior.
1.9 Psychology Is a Computational and Data Science
Advances in computation have dramatically changed how psychological science is conducted.
Computational modeling to identify hidden features of cognition is now common in many
fields. Big data approaches use very large data sets to identify patterns and predict behavior.
The open science reform movement has increased the transparency and accessibility of
psychological science using data and information sharing.
1.10 Culture Provides Adaptive Solutions
Cultural norms specify how people should behave in different contexts. They reflect solutions
to adaptive problems that have been worked out by a group of individuals, and they are
transmitted through learning.
,1.11 Psychological Science Crosses Levels of Analysis
Psychologists examine behavior from various analytical levels: biological (brain systems,
neurochemistry, genetics), individual (personality, perception, cognition), social
(interpersonal behavior), and cultural (within a single culture, across several cultures).
1.12 Psychological Education Embraces the Science of Learning
Research on learning and memory has generated insights into how to improve study habits.
Techniques such as distributed practice, retrieval-based learning, and elaborative interrogation
have been shown to increase memory for new topics and are used throughout this book to
help students learn.
1.13 Psychology Outside the Lab: How Will Psychology Benefit You in Your Career?
The study of psychological science is highly relevant to multiple aspects of life, including a
chosen career. There are growing opportunities for those with degrees in psychology.
Glossary:
Psychological science: The study, through research, of mind, brain, and behavior.
Critical thinking: Systematically questioning and evaluating information using well-supported
evidence.
Mind/body problem: A fundamental psychological issue: Are mind and body separate and
distinct, or is the mind simply the physical brain’s subjective experience?
Culture: The beliefs, values, rules, norms, and customs that exist within a group of people
who share a common language and environment.
Nature/nurture debate: The arguments concerning whether psychological characteristics are
biologically innate or acquired through education, experience, and culture.
Stream of consciousness: A phrase coined by William James to describe each
person’s continuous series of ever-changing thoughts.
Functionalism: An approach to psychology concerned with the adaptive
purpose, or function, of mind and behavior.
Natural selection: In evolutionary theory, the idea that those who inherit characteristics that
help them adapt to their particular environments have a selective advantage over those who do
not.
Diversity and inclusion: The value and practice of ensuring that psychological science
represents the experiences of all humans.
Epigenetics: The study of biological or environmental influences on gene expression that are
not part of inherited genes.
Behaviorism: A psychological approach that emphasizes environmental
influences on observable behaviors.
Big data: Science that uses very large data sets and advanced computational methods to
discover patterns that would be difficult to detect with smaller data sets.
Data ethics: The branch of philosophy that addresses ethical issues in data sciences, including
data accessibility, identifiability, and autonomy.
Replicability: The likelihood that the results of a study would be very
similar if it were run again.
Open science movement: A social movement among scientists to improve methods, increase
research transparency, and promote data sharing.
, Biopsychosocial model: An approach to psychological science that integrates biological
factors, psychological processes, and social- contextual influences in shaping human mental
life and behavior.
Distributed practice: Learning material in several bursts over a prolonged time
frame.
Retrieval-based learning: Learning new information by repeatedly recalling it from
long-term memory.
Elaborative interrogation: Learning by asking yourself why a fact is true or a process
operates the way it does.
Self-explanation: Reflecting on your learning process and trying to make sense
of new material in your own words.
Interleaved practice: Switching between topics during studying.
Hoofdstuk 2
Samenvatting:
2.1 Science Has Three Primary Goals
The three primary goals of science are description (describing what a phenomenon is),
prediction (predicting when a phenomenon might occur), and explanation (explaining what
causes a phenomenon to occur).
2.2 The Scientific Method Is a Systematic Way to Test Hypotheses
Scientific inquiry relies on objective methods and empirical evidence to answer testable
questions. The scientific method is based on the use of theories to
generate hypotheses that can be tested by collecting objective data through research. After a
theory has been formulated based on observing a phenomenon, the seven steps of the
scientific method are framing research questions, reviewing the scientific literature to see if
and/or how people are testing the theory, forming a hypothesis based on the theory, choosing
a research method to test the hypothesis, conducting the research study, analyzing the data,
and disseminating the results.
2.3 The Scientific Method Is Cyclical
The data from scientific studies either support and strengthen a theory or require
reconsidering or revising the theory. Replication involves repeating a study to see if the same
results occur. Replication is increasingly important in psychology. New best practices address
the main reasons why a study might not replicate. Meta-analysis is a powerful tool to look
across studies to help determine whether a finding is replicable.
2.4 Critical Thinking Is Essential to Evaluating Scientific Findings
Critical thinking is a skill that helps people become educated consumers of information.
Critical thinkers question claims, seek definitions for the parts of the claims, and evaluate the
claims by looking for well- supported evidence.
What Types of Studies Are Used in Psychological Research?
2.5 Descriptive Research Consists of Case Studies, Observation, and Self-Report
Methods
A case study, one kind of descriptive study, examines an atypical individual or organization.
However, the findings of a case study may not generalize. Researchers observe and describe
naturally occurring behaviors to provide a systematic and objective analysis. Data collected
by observation must be defined clearly and collected systematically. Surveys, questionnaires,
and interviews can be used to directly ask people about their thoughts and behaviors.
Week 1
Hoofdstuk 1
Samenvatting:
1.1 Psychological Science Is the Study of Mind, Brain, and Behavior
Mind refers to mental activity, which results from biological processes within the brain.
Behavior describes the totality of observable human (or animal) actions. The term
psychologist is used broadly to describe someone whose career involves understanding mental
life or predicting behavior.
1.2 Psychological Science Teaches Critical Thinking
Learning to think critically improves how people process information. Amiable skepticism
requires a careful examination of how well evidence supports a conclusion. Using critical
thinking skills and understanding the methods of psychological science are important for
evaluating research reported in the popular media.
1.3 Psychological Science Helps Us Understand Biased or Inaccurate Thinking
People engage in common biases in thinking. These biases probably evolved along with the
ability to quickly categorize information and make decisions, but they often result in faulty
conclusions. Some common biases in thinking include ignoring evidence (confirmation bias),
seeing relationships that do not exist, accepting after-the-fact explanations, and taking mental
shortcuts.
,1.4 You Be the Psychologist: Why Are People Unaware of Their Weaknesses?
People often fail to see their own inadequacies. People sometimes lack the
expertise in a domain to know the difference between good and bad performance. Humans are
also motivated to think well of themselves, so they might not internalize valid criticism.
Thinking like a psychologist involves asking “why” about all aspects of human mental life
and behavior.
What Is the Scientific Scope of Psychology?
1.5 Many Psychological Questions Have a Long History The nature/nurture debate
questioned whether psychological characteristics are biologically innate or are acquired
through education, experience, and culture. Today we know nature and nurture interact and
their influences often cannot be separated. The mind/body problem questioned whether the
mind and body are separate and distinct or whether the mind is simply the subjective
experience of ongoing brain activity. Dualist notions about the separation of the brain and
mind have been replaced with the idea that the (physical) brain enables the mind.
1.6 Mental Processes and Behaviors Serve Functions for Individuals and Groups
Psychologists study mental activity and behavior using scientific methods. Following initial
attempts to understand individual components of the mind, the field coalesced around the idea
that the mind is too complex to understand as a collection of individual parts. Functionalism is
the idea that the mind evolved to solve specific problems in the environment. Human mental
activity, behavior, and even culture are guided by evolution and environmental challenges.
1.7 The Field of Psychology Spans the Range of Human Experience
Psychological science now encompasses the breadth of human experience.
Developmental psychologists focus on changes in mental activity and behavior across the life
span. Cognitive psychologists and cognitive neuroscientists seek to understand the building
blocks of thinking using tools that measure specific psychological, behavioral, and neural
processes. Clinical psychologists study disorders of the mind, and health psychology
examines the bidirectional relationship between mental life and physical health.
What Are the Latest Developments in Psychology?
1.8 Biology Is Increasingly Emphasized in Explaining Psychological Phenomena
Tremendous advances in neuroscience have revealed the working brain. New insights into the
immune, stress, and metabolic systems have revealed the complex ways that the rest of the
body influences the brain and vice versa. These advances are increasing our knowledge of
mind, brain, and behavior.
1.9 Psychology Is a Computational and Data Science
Advances in computation have dramatically changed how psychological science is conducted.
Computational modeling to identify hidden features of cognition is now common in many
fields. Big data approaches use very large data sets to identify patterns and predict behavior.
The open science reform movement has increased the transparency and accessibility of
psychological science using data and information sharing.
1.10 Culture Provides Adaptive Solutions
Cultural norms specify how people should behave in different contexts. They reflect solutions
to adaptive problems that have been worked out by a group of individuals, and they are
transmitted through learning.
,1.11 Psychological Science Crosses Levels of Analysis
Psychologists examine behavior from various analytical levels: biological (brain systems,
neurochemistry, genetics), individual (personality, perception, cognition), social
(interpersonal behavior), and cultural (within a single culture, across several cultures).
1.12 Psychological Education Embraces the Science of Learning
Research on learning and memory has generated insights into how to improve study habits.
Techniques such as distributed practice, retrieval-based learning, and elaborative interrogation
have been shown to increase memory for new topics and are used throughout this book to
help students learn.
1.13 Psychology Outside the Lab: How Will Psychology Benefit You in Your Career?
The study of psychological science is highly relevant to multiple aspects of life, including a
chosen career. There are growing opportunities for those with degrees in psychology.
Glossary:
Psychological science: The study, through research, of mind, brain, and behavior.
Critical thinking: Systematically questioning and evaluating information using well-supported
evidence.
Mind/body problem: A fundamental psychological issue: Are mind and body separate and
distinct, or is the mind simply the physical brain’s subjective experience?
Culture: The beliefs, values, rules, norms, and customs that exist within a group of people
who share a common language and environment.
Nature/nurture debate: The arguments concerning whether psychological characteristics are
biologically innate or acquired through education, experience, and culture.
Stream of consciousness: A phrase coined by William James to describe each
person’s continuous series of ever-changing thoughts.
Functionalism: An approach to psychology concerned with the adaptive
purpose, or function, of mind and behavior.
Natural selection: In evolutionary theory, the idea that those who inherit characteristics that
help them adapt to their particular environments have a selective advantage over those who do
not.
Diversity and inclusion: The value and practice of ensuring that psychological science
represents the experiences of all humans.
Epigenetics: The study of biological or environmental influences on gene expression that are
not part of inherited genes.
Behaviorism: A psychological approach that emphasizes environmental
influences on observable behaviors.
Big data: Science that uses very large data sets and advanced computational methods to
discover patterns that would be difficult to detect with smaller data sets.
Data ethics: The branch of philosophy that addresses ethical issues in data sciences, including
data accessibility, identifiability, and autonomy.
Replicability: The likelihood that the results of a study would be very
similar if it were run again.
Open science movement: A social movement among scientists to improve methods, increase
research transparency, and promote data sharing.
, Biopsychosocial model: An approach to psychological science that integrates biological
factors, psychological processes, and social- contextual influences in shaping human mental
life and behavior.
Distributed practice: Learning material in several bursts over a prolonged time
frame.
Retrieval-based learning: Learning new information by repeatedly recalling it from
long-term memory.
Elaborative interrogation: Learning by asking yourself why a fact is true or a process
operates the way it does.
Self-explanation: Reflecting on your learning process and trying to make sense
of new material in your own words.
Interleaved practice: Switching between topics during studying.
Hoofdstuk 2
Samenvatting:
2.1 Science Has Three Primary Goals
The three primary goals of science are description (describing what a phenomenon is),
prediction (predicting when a phenomenon might occur), and explanation (explaining what
causes a phenomenon to occur).
2.2 The Scientific Method Is a Systematic Way to Test Hypotheses
Scientific inquiry relies on objective methods and empirical evidence to answer testable
questions. The scientific method is based on the use of theories to
generate hypotheses that can be tested by collecting objective data through research. After a
theory has been formulated based on observing a phenomenon, the seven steps of the
scientific method are framing research questions, reviewing the scientific literature to see if
and/or how people are testing the theory, forming a hypothesis based on the theory, choosing
a research method to test the hypothesis, conducting the research study, analyzing the data,
and disseminating the results.
2.3 The Scientific Method Is Cyclical
The data from scientific studies either support and strengthen a theory or require
reconsidering or revising the theory. Replication involves repeating a study to see if the same
results occur. Replication is increasingly important in psychology. New best practices address
the main reasons why a study might not replicate. Meta-analysis is a powerful tool to look
across studies to help determine whether a finding is replicable.
2.4 Critical Thinking Is Essential to Evaluating Scientific Findings
Critical thinking is a skill that helps people become educated consumers of information.
Critical thinkers question claims, seek definitions for the parts of the claims, and evaluate the
claims by looking for well- supported evidence.
What Types of Studies Are Used in Psychological Research?
2.5 Descriptive Research Consists of Case Studies, Observation, and Self-Report
Methods
A case study, one kind of descriptive study, examines an atypical individual or organization.
However, the findings of a case study may not generalize. Researchers observe and describe
naturally occurring behaviors to provide a systematic and objective analysis. Data collected
by observation must be defined clearly and collected systematically. Surveys, questionnaires,
and interviews can be used to directly ask people about their thoughts and behaviors.
