1
( )
, 2
Introduction to Pathophysiology ....................................................................... 3 - 4
Inflammation and Immune Response ................................................................. 4 - 6
Altered Immunity ........................................................................................... 6 - 7
HIV and AIDS ................................................................................................. 7 - 8
Genetics ...................................................................................................... 8 - 10
Neoplasia and Cancer .................................................................................... 11 - 12
Hemostasis Disorders .................................................................................... 12 - 14
Fluid and Electrolyte Balance............................................................................ 14 - 16
Acid-Base Balance .......................................................................................... 16 - 18
Renal and Urinary Tract Disorders ......................................................................18 - 21
Respiratory Disorders ....................................................................................21 - 25
Circulatory Disorders ..................................................................................... 25 - 29
Cardiovascular Disorders ............................................................................... 29 - 31
Neurological Disorders................................................................................... 32 - 35
Musculoskeletal Disorders.............................................................................. 35 - 39
Endocrine Disorders ...................................................................................... 39 - 42
GI Disorders ................................................................................................ 42 - 44
, 3
~ Introduction to Pathophysiology ~
Defining Terms
Pathology: The study of disorders (patho = suffering/disease)
Physiology: The study of chemical and physical functions within a living system (physis = nature or origin)
Pathophysiology: The study of changes in normal mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions
Pathogenesis: The development of disease
Health: Wellness of mind, body, and spirit
Disease: A deviation from normal structure or function; a disruption in homeostasis
“Normal” parameters: A range within which the majority of the population falls
“Abnormal” conditions: Fall outside of “normal” parameters
Homeostasis: A dynamic, steady state of internal balance
Negative feedback loop: Opposes stimulus to correct deficits or excess
o For example: Blood pressure (BP) control, body temperature
Positive feedback loop: Enhances stimulus
o For example: Labor contractions
Levels of Disease Prevention
Primordial: Preventing the development of risk factors
o For example: The social determinants of health (i.e. access to healthcare and transportation)
Primary: “Protection and Prevention”; improving general well-being while protecting against specific diseases
before things go wrong
o For example: Vaccines, helmets
Secondary: Screenings; early detection and intervention to stop disease from progressing
o For example: Pap smears, BP screens
Tertiary: Treatment of disease; the goal is to return to a state of maximum usefulness with minimal risk of
recurrence of disease or exacerbation
o For example: Medications, physical therapy, surgery
Pathophysiology of Stress
Stress: A physical, chemical, or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension and may cause or
worsen disease processes
Allostasis: The attempt to cope with stressors and adapt to maintain homeostasis
o Allostatic overload: When the body is not able to return to homeostasis
Alarm Stage: “Fight, Flight, or Freeze” response; the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system
(SNS) which arouses the central nervous system (CNS) and provides a temporary burst of energy
Adaptation/Resistance Stage: Long-term, chronic stress; the body will either adapt, attempt to limit the
problem, or become desensitized, whichever is most effective and advantageous
Exhaustion Stage: Prolonged stress overwhelms the body and systems can no longer function
, 4
Cellular Response to Injury
Reversible: The cell withstands assault and returns to normal; swelling occurs
Adaptation: The cell responds to persistent injury by changing shape or function
o Atrophy: Decrease in size due to (d/t) decreased work demand
o Hypertrophy: Increase in size d/t increased work demand
o Hyperplasia: Increase in number d/t increased need for divisions
o Metaplasia: The reversible change of one cell type to another; growth is ordered and controlled
o Dysplasia (atypical hyperplasia): Abnormal changes in size, shape, or organization; not a true adaptation;
typically precancerous
Death: The response to severe, prolonged, and irreversible injury; necrosis and inflammation
o Necrosis: Cell death d/t irreversible injury; inflammation occurs
o Apoptosis: Programmed cell death via self-destruction; no inflammation occurs
~ Inflammation and Immune Response ~
Immunity
Innate/nonspecific immunity: A generic and immediate response, regardless of self or non-self cells; no
memory or long-lasting immunity
Acquired/specific immunity: Highly-specific to particular pathogens, recognizing self vs. non-self cells;
responds slowly to the first exposure develops a memory of pathogens and adapts responds faster to
future exposures to the same organism, offering long-term protection
Acquired/Specific Immunity
Humoral immunity: In fluids and circulation; antibody-mediated
o Plasma B-cells: Create antibodies (immunoglobulins); always ready to recognize antigens
o Memory B-cells: Form during the primary exposure, remember the pathogen, and quickly respond to the
secondary exposure
Cellular immunity: Interact with cells in the body; mobile beyond fluids
o Cytotoxic T-cells: “The Assassins”; directly attack infected cells
o Helper T-cells: “The Messengers”; regulate inflammatory response; recognize antigens, release chemicals,
and recruit cytotoxic T-cells
o Memory T-cells: “The Brains”; similar in function to memory B-cells
Natural killer (NK) cells: “The Ninja”; attack infected cells rather than specific antigens
Superantigens: Activate T-cells and cytokine production, making people very sick; bind to portions of
antibodies and are not processed through antigen-processing cells
Clonal anergy: B or T-cells are inactivated
Clonal deletion: B or T-cells are deleted during development
( )
, 2
Introduction to Pathophysiology ....................................................................... 3 - 4
Inflammation and Immune Response ................................................................. 4 - 6
Altered Immunity ........................................................................................... 6 - 7
HIV and AIDS ................................................................................................. 7 - 8
Genetics ...................................................................................................... 8 - 10
Neoplasia and Cancer .................................................................................... 11 - 12
Hemostasis Disorders .................................................................................... 12 - 14
Fluid and Electrolyte Balance............................................................................ 14 - 16
Acid-Base Balance .......................................................................................... 16 - 18
Renal and Urinary Tract Disorders ......................................................................18 - 21
Respiratory Disorders ....................................................................................21 - 25
Circulatory Disorders ..................................................................................... 25 - 29
Cardiovascular Disorders ............................................................................... 29 - 31
Neurological Disorders................................................................................... 32 - 35
Musculoskeletal Disorders.............................................................................. 35 - 39
Endocrine Disorders ...................................................................................... 39 - 42
GI Disorders ................................................................................................ 42 - 44
, 3
~ Introduction to Pathophysiology ~
Defining Terms
Pathology: The study of disorders (patho = suffering/disease)
Physiology: The study of chemical and physical functions within a living system (physis = nature or origin)
Pathophysiology: The study of changes in normal mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions
Pathogenesis: The development of disease
Health: Wellness of mind, body, and spirit
Disease: A deviation from normal structure or function; a disruption in homeostasis
“Normal” parameters: A range within which the majority of the population falls
“Abnormal” conditions: Fall outside of “normal” parameters
Homeostasis: A dynamic, steady state of internal balance
Negative feedback loop: Opposes stimulus to correct deficits or excess
o For example: Blood pressure (BP) control, body temperature
Positive feedback loop: Enhances stimulus
o For example: Labor contractions
Levels of Disease Prevention
Primordial: Preventing the development of risk factors
o For example: The social determinants of health (i.e. access to healthcare and transportation)
Primary: “Protection and Prevention”; improving general well-being while protecting against specific diseases
before things go wrong
o For example: Vaccines, helmets
Secondary: Screenings; early detection and intervention to stop disease from progressing
o For example: Pap smears, BP screens
Tertiary: Treatment of disease; the goal is to return to a state of maximum usefulness with minimal risk of
recurrence of disease or exacerbation
o For example: Medications, physical therapy, surgery
Pathophysiology of Stress
Stress: A physical, chemical, or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension and may cause or
worsen disease processes
Allostasis: The attempt to cope with stressors and adapt to maintain homeostasis
o Allostatic overload: When the body is not able to return to homeostasis
Alarm Stage: “Fight, Flight, or Freeze” response; the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system
(SNS) which arouses the central nervous system (CNS) and provides a temporary burst of energy
Adaptation/Resistance Stage: Long-term, chronic stress; the body will either adapt, attempt to limit the
problem, or become desensitized, whichever is most effective and advantageous
Exhaustion Stage: Prolonged stress overwhelms the body and systems can no longer function
, 4
Cellular Response to Injury
Reversible: The cell withstands assault and returns to normal; swelling occurs
Adaptation: The cell responds to persistent injury by changing shape or function
o Atrophy: Decrease in size due to (d/t) decreased work demand
o Hypertrophy: Increase in size d/t increased work demand
o Hyperplasia: Increase in number d/t increased need for divisions
o Metaplasia: The reversible change of one cell type to another; growth is ordered and controlled
o Dysplasia (atypical hyperplasia): Abnormal changes in size, shape, or organization; not a true adaptation;
typically precancerous
Death: The response to severe, prolonged, and irreversible injury; necrosis and inflammation
o Necrosis: Cell death d/t irreversible injury; inflammation occurs
o Apoptosis: Programmed cell death via self-destruction; no inflammation occurs
~ Inflammation and Immune Response ~
Immunity
Innate/nonspecific immunity: A generic and immediate response, regardless of self or non-self cells; no
memory or long-lasting immunity
Acquired/specific immunity: Highly-specific to particular pathogens, recognizing self vs. non-self cells;
responds slowly to the first exposure develops a memory of pathogens and adapts responds faster to
future exposures to the same organism, offering long-term protection
Acquired/Specific Immunity
Humoral immunity: In fluids and circulation; antibody-mediated
o Plasma B-cells: Create antibodies (immunoglobulins); always ready to recognize antigens
o Memory B-cells: Form during the primary exposure, remember the pathogen, and quickly respond to the
secondary exposure
Cellular immunity: Interact with cells in the body; mobile beyond fluids
o Cytotoxic T-cells: “The Assassins”; directly attack infected cells
o Helper T-cells: “The Messengers”; regulate inflammatory response; recognize antigens, release chemicals,
and recruit cytotoxic T-cells
o Memory T-cells: “The Brains”; similar in function to memory B-cells
Natural killer (NK) cells: “The Ninja”; attack infected cells rather than specific antigens
Superantigens: Activate T-cells and cytokine production, making people very sick; bind to portions of
antibodies and are not processed through antigen-processing cells
Clonal anergy: B or T-cells are inactivated
Clonal deletion: B or T-cells are deleted during development
