Lecture 1
-The whole book for exam! + articles!
-Social influence: When one’s emotions, opinions or behaviours are affected by others.
-(Pure) persuasion: Intentional, focused at others, non-coercive (but sometimes unintentional (e.g.,
affecting the other in a relationship) or directed towards self (e.g., trying to get yourself out of bed in
the morning).
-Compliance gaining: Request (there is a clear direction you want to go in).
-2 important questions:
How much control do people have over the information-processing steps?
-Controlled vs automatic processes (dual processes).
-Controlled processes: awareness, intended, controllable, effortful.
-Automatic processes: lack of awareness, unintended, uncontrollable, efficient.
-When 2 automatic processes don’t work well you have to interfere with a controlled process (e.g.,
saying colour of word instead of the word).
-There is often an overlap between controlled and automatic (decreases or increases; not one of the
other).
Are people aware of the actual causes of our thoughts, feelings and behaviours? (to what
extent do we understand ourselves? -> only to a degree).
-We are not aware that we give a different cause to our behaviour than what was actually the cause.
However, we see ourself as rational.
-Heuristics: Rules of thumb, quick decision making.
Strategies using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to decide.
Rules of thumb, educated guesses, intuitive judgements, common sense.
In part unconscious, automatic choices.
Fixed-action patterns: behaviours that occur in virtually the same fashion and order every
time.
-We use heuristics: cognitive limitations, limited time and energy, we cannot deliberate on every
choice we make, efficient, heuristics work very well most of the time.
-Overall, heuristics are rational. However, in some instances unwanted outcomes.
-Giving a reason makes people comply.
-However, do we really listen to the reason or do we just accept the reason -> there is a bias: because
there is a reason, you comply (heuristic).
-Study Langer and colleagues: Asking a favour of people standing in line if they can print something
(because I’m in a rush or because I have to make some copies or no reason). So, there doesn’t have to
be a good reason, people will accept it, this accepting is an heuristic. The heuristic only works with
low cause behaviour (so with 5 pages printing but not with 20); than the automatic processes are
overruled.
-Expensive=good is a heuristic (but often also kind of true).
-Inexpensive=bad is a heuristic.
-Expensive beers taste better than inexpensive ones (if quality and styles are similar). It is difficult to
evaluate beforehand what is better quality, then we use the price to evaluate the quality. A higher
price increases our evaluation (so even if it is both the same beer, the more expensive one seems
better). This is enforced into campaigns (e.g., because you’re worth it; price doesn’t only show how
,good the product is but also how good you are).
-If something is cheap, we rate it lower/inferior.
-Complementary products (product for free/gifts from store) are valued less and perceived to be
inexpensive.
-If a product doesn’t sell well, it can help to raise the price.
-People are willing to pay 35% less when they think it is a free present. So indicate the price if you
give it as a free gift in the store.
-However, at the same time we are trying to save money but we want the best. These 2 processes
come together with a sale/discount. So the discount tells you how much you save and the original
price says how ‘good’ the original product is.
-Discount coupons result in higher sales, even when no savings are offered.
-Effort heuristic: Effort can add value.
-Finding money on the street vs hard earned money: Spending it makes a difference because there is
a different in effort; it determines the value of the money. When you work for money it is worth
more. If you find it -> hedonic spending.
-Hard earned money is more used for sensible stuff.
-If you let the person work more for you (playing hard to get) they will start to like you more, because
they have put more effort in you. This effort is used as an indicator of the value of the person.
-There is one catch: it is you looking back at the effort. Not seeing beforehand everything you have to
do (then if backfires) (e.g., you have to clean my carpet, do my laundry, etc.).
-‘I must like the person a lot because I did so much for them’.
-Effort in processing works the other way. The extent to which I have to think about something has an
impact.
-Rhyme things that are easy to process (e.g., advertisement) work because they are easy to process.
Things that are difficult to processes we see as less true and less persuasive.
-The effort it takes to tell more reasons why you like your partner (e.g., 2 vs 12 things you like about
them) makes you think you like them less, because it takes more effort.
-The more easy it is to think of positive aspects of a product, the more positively that ‘product’ is
evaluated.
-Handwriting: Sloppy handwriting less persuasive, complex handwriting also less persuasive.
-Recognition heuristic: If one of two objects is recognized and the other is not, we think that the
recognized object has the higher value with respect to the criterion. In many cases this is a valid
assumption.
-Even annoying advertisement can be very catchy and sticky and remembering it will greatly show if
you will get a product.
-Simulation heuristic: If it is easier to picture it is more likely to happen. The likelihood of an event is
based on how easy it is to picture mentally (e.g., risk perception). People more regret missing
outcomes that are easier to imagine (e.g., near misses; you can picture you getting in the train on
time).
-Apple does this: saying you should get insurance because this and this can happen (so imagining it).
-Similarity heuristic: People make judgements based on similarly between current situations and
(prototypes of) other situations. Adaptive: maximizing productivity through favourable experience
while not repeating unfavourable experiences (e.g., buy books with characteristics to previously
pleasurable book).
-Contrast principle: If a second item is fairly different from the first (the reference point), we perceive
, it as more different. We look for ankers (first object). The direction is important!
-Example contrast principle: sell costly items first, this will make the other item look less expensive
(the other way around is not effective). Or, example with real estate companies: first showing an ugly
house and then after prettier houses. Or buying a new car, the add-ons then look very cheap
compared to the care while on itself the add-ons look expensive.
-Example:
3.2% interest, but not touching bank account for 5 years.
3.4% interest, but not touching bank account for 10 years.
-Everyone takes the first one -> more favourable.
-If we add something:
3.45% interest, but not touching bank account for 15 years -> no one wants this but this
makes option B a lot better.
-Here, we use reference points.
-We think in reference points and relationships.
-Compromise: When choosing between products, we tend to take the inexpensive option. When
adding a third, more expensive option, people take the middle option (=compromise).
-Sales of expensive options can be increased by adding even more expensive options.
-The whole book for exam! + articles!
-Social influence: When one’s emotions, opinions or behaviours are affected by others.
-(Pure) persuasion: Intentional, focused at others, non-coercive (but sometimes unintentional (e.g.,
affecting the other in a relationship) or directed towards self (e.g., trying to get yourself out of bed in
the morning).
-Compliance gaining: Request (there is a clear direction you want to go in).
-2 important questions:
How much control do people have over the information-processing steps?
-Controlled vs automatic processes (dual processes).
-Controlled processes: awareness, intended, controllable, effortful.
-Automatic processes: lack of awareness, unintended, uncontrollable, efficient.
-When 2 automatic processes don’t work well you have to interfere with a controlled process (e.g.,
saying colour of word instead of the word).
-There is often an overlap between controlled and automatic (decreases or increases; not one of the
other).
Are people aware of the actual causes of our thoughts, feelings and behaviours? (to what
extent do we understand ourselves? -> only to a degree).
-We are not aware that we give a different cause to our behaviour than what was actually the cause.
However, we see ourself as rational.
-Heuristics: Rules of thumb, quick decision making.
Strategies using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to decide.
Rules of thumb, educated guesses, intuitive judgements, common sense.
In part unconscious, automatic choices.
Fixed-action patterns: behaviours that occur in virtually the same fashion and order every
time.
-We use heuristics: cognitive limitations, limited time and energy, we cannot deliberate on every
choice we make, efficient, heuristics work very well most of the time.
-Overall, heuristics are rational. However, in some instances unwanted outcomes.
-Giving a reason makes people comply.
-However, do we really listen to the reason or do we just accept the reason -> there is a bias: because
there is a reason, you comply (heuristic).
-Study Langer and colleagues: Asking a favour of people standing in line if they can print something
(because I’m in a rush or because I have to make some copies or no reason). So, there doesn’t have to
be a good reason, people will accept it, this accepting is an heuristic. The heuristic only works with
low cause behaviour (so with 5 pages printing but not with 20); than the automatic processes are
overruled.
-Expensive=good is a heuristic (but often also kind of true).
-Inexpensive=bad is a heuristic.
-Expensive beers taste better than inexpensive ones (if quality and styles are similar). It is difficult to
evaluate beforehand what is better quality, then we use the price to evaluate the quality. A higher
price increases our evaluation (so even if it is both the same beer, the more expensive one seems
better). This is enforced into campaigns (e.g., because you’re worth it; price doesn’t only show how
,good the product is but also how good you are).
-If something is cheap, we rate it lower/inferior.
-Complementary products (product for free/gifts from store) are valued less and perceived to be
inexpensive.
-If a product doesn’t sell well, it can help to raise the price.
-People are willing to pay 35% less when they think it is a free present. So indicate the price if you
give it as a free gift in the store.
-However, at the same time we are trying to save money but we want the best. These 2 processes
come together with a sale/discount. So the discount tells you how much you save and the original
price says how ‘good’ the original product is.
-Discount coupons result in higher sales, even when no savings are offered.
-Effort heuristic: Effort can add value.
-Finding money on the street vs hard earned money: Spending it makes a difference because there is
a different in effort; it determines the value of the money. When you work for money it is worth
more. If you find it -> hedonic spending.
-Hard earned money is more used for sensible stuff.
-If you let the person work more for you (playing hard to get) they will start to like you more, because
they have put more effort in you. This effort is used as an indicator of the value of the person.
-There is one catch: it is you looking back at the effort. Not seeing beforehand everything you have to
do (then if backfires) (e.g., you have to clean my carpet, do my laundry, etc.).
-‘I must like the person a lot because I did so much for them’.
-Effort in processing works the other way. The extent to which I have to think about something has an
impact.
-Rhyme things that are easy to process (e.g., advertisement) work because they are easy to process.
Things that are difficult to processes we see as less true and less persuasive.
-The effort it takes to tell more reasons why you like your partner (e.g., 2 vs 12 things you like about
them) makes you think you like them less, because it takes more effort.
-The more easy it is to think of positive aspects of a product, the more positively that ‘product’ is
evaluated.
-Handwriting: Sloppy handwriting less persuasive, complex handwriting also less persuasive.
-Recognition heuristic: If one of two objects is recognized and the other is not, we think that the
recognized object has the higher value with respect to the criterion. In many cases this is a valid
assumption.
-Even annoying advertisement can be very catchy and sticky and remembering it will greatly show if
you will get a product.
-Simulation heuristic: If it is easier to picture it is more likely to happen. The likelihood of an event is
based on how easy it is to picture mentally (e.g., risk perception). People more regret missing
outcomes that are easier to imagine (e.g., near misses; you can picture you getting in the train on
time).
-Apple does this: saying you should get insurance because this and this can happen (so imagining it).
-Similarity heuristic: People make judgements based on similarly between current situations and
(prototypes of) other situations. Adaptive: maximizing productivity through favourable experience
while not repeating unfavourable experiences (e.g., buy books with characteristics to previously
pleasurable book).
-Contrast principle: If a second item is fairly different from the first (the reference point), we perceive
, it as more different. We look for ankers (first object). The direction is important!
-Example contrast principle: sell costly items first, this will make the other item look less expensive
(the other way around is not effective). Or, example with real estate companies: first showing an ugly
house and then after prettier houses. Or buying a new car, the add-ons then look very cheap
compared to the care while on itself the add-ons look expensive.
-Example:
3.2% interest, but not touching bank account for 5 years.
3.4% interest, but not touching bank account for 10 years.
-Everyone takes the first one -> more favourable.
-If we add something:
3.45% interest, but not touching bank account for 15 years -> no one wants this but this
makes option B a lot better.
-Here, we use reference points.
-We think in reference points and relationships.
-Compromise: When choosing between products, we tend to take the inexpensive option. When
adding a third, more expensive option, people take the middle option (=compromise).
-Sales of expensive options can be increased by adding even more expensive options.
