CORE COURSE-III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
SHSS PSY 01 01 03 C 4004
Credits: 4 (Hrs. /week: 4) Total: 100 marks
Internal Assessment: 30 Marks
Examination: 70 mark
NOTES
UNIT : 1 - Psychological Research: Nature, Characteristics, Need. Univariate vs. Multivariate
Approach;
Variables: Types, Control of relevant variables
Research Problem: Formulation, Sources, and Criteria.
Hypothesis: Types and basic concepts related with hypotheses testing, and Virtues of problem
and hypothesis
Definition of Psychological Research
Psychological research is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It aims to
systematically investigate human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors by applying the scientific
method. Psychological research allows for the understanding, explanation, prediction, and control of
behavior through empirical observation and data analysis
According to Kerlinger (1986), research is "a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical
investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses."
Nature of Psychological Research
Psychological research relies on empirical methods and follows a structured, scientific approach to
explore various psychological phenomena.
● Scientific Approach: Psychological research is conducted using the scientific method,
involving careful observation, data collection, and hypothesis testing. According to Kothari
(2004), research is "systematic, controlled, and empirical," ensuring that findings are
grounded in observable and measurable facts.
● Empirical Basis: Research relies on data from real-world observations or experiments, not
mere speculation. It focuses on producing objective knowledge based on evidence.
● Theory Development: Psychological research contributes to theory building by testing
hypotheses and refining existing psychological frameworks.
● Empirical: Based on observation and measurement of real-world phenomena.
● Systematic: Follows a structured process, including formulating hypotheses, collecting data,
analyzing results, and drawing conclusions.
● Objective: Strives to minimize bias and personal interpretation, focusing on factual evidence.
● Replicable: Research findings should be able to be reproduced by other researchers under
similar conditions.
, ● Testable: Hypotheses and theories can be tested through empirical methods.
● Cumulative: Builds on previous research findings, refining and expanding our understanding
of human behavior.
Methods used in psychological research:
● Experiments: Involve manipulating variables to determine cause-and-effect
relationships.
● Surveys: Collect data through questionnaires or interviews to assess attitudes,
beliefs, and behaviors.
● Case studies: In-depth examinations of individual cases to gain insights into rare or
unusual phenomena.
● Correlational studies: Examine relationships between variables to identify patterns
and associations.
● Observations: Systematic observations of behavior in natural settings or controlled
environments.
Ethical considerations in psychological research:
* Informed consent: Participants must be informed about the nature of the research and
agree to participate voluntarily.
* Confidentiality: Participant data should be kept confidential and protected from
unauthorized access.
* Debriefing: Participants should be informed about the true purpose of the research and
any deception used.
* Minimizing harm: Researchers must take steps to minimize any potential risks or harm to
participants.
The nature of psychological research is:
* Multifaceted: Encompasses a wide range of topics and methods.
* Evolving: New research methods and technologies are constantly being developed.
* Interdisciplinary: Draws on knowledge from other fields, such as neuroscience, biology,
and sociology.
Characteristics of Psychological Research
Objective: Research is designed to minimize bias and provide objective results. As Kothari (2004)
notes, objectivity is a critical characteristic of scientific research because it differentiates scientific
knowledge from mere assumptions or beliefs.
Systematic: Psychological research follows a structured and organized process, from identifying a
problem to interpreting results. Creswell (2018) outlines five essential steps: formulating a research
question, reviewing literature, collecting data, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.
Replicable: The ability to replicate research is crucial for verifying results. If other researchers can
replicate a study and obtain similar findings, the research gains credibility.
Controlled: Researchers control variables in experiments to ensure that the observed effects are due
to the independent variable (IV) rather than extraneous variables.
, Ethical: Research must adhere to ethical guidelines, such as ensuring informed consent and
protecting the privacy and welfare of participants.
Falsifiability: Psychological research involves hypotheses that can be tested and potentially
disproven. According to Popper (1959), a hypothesis must be structured in a way that it can be
falsified to be considered scientific.
Need for Psychological Research
Advancing Knowledge: Research fills gaps in existing knowledge, allowing psychology to evolve as a
science. It helps refine existing theories or propose new frameworks based on empirical findings.
Solving Practical Problems: Psychological research addresses real-world problems in education,
mental health, business, and more. It informs interventions like Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT),
which are supported by scientific evidence (Butcher et al., 2013).
Evidence-Based Practice: Psychological treatments and therapies rely on research findings to be
effective. Empirical research ensures that interventions are evidence-based and beneficial.
Policy-making: Psychological research guides policy decisions in areas such as mental health, public
safety, and education. Governments and organizations use research findings to implement effective
policies.
Technological Advancements: Research in psychology also contributes to fields like human-computer
interaction and artificial intelligence. By studying how people think and behave, researchers can
improve the design of technology to meet human needs better.
Univariate vs. Multivariate Approaches
Univariate Approach
Definition: A univariate approach involves analyzing one variable at a time, focusing on its
characteristics like central tendency (mean, median, mode) and variability (standard deviation,
range). This approach is useful for simple descriptive analyses.
Examples:
Mean height of participants: Researchers calculate the average height of a group.
Frequency distribution: Presenting how many participants fall into specific categories, such as age
groups.
Advantages:
Simplicity: Univariate analysis is easy to perform and interpret.
Clarity: It provides straightforward insights into a single variable without needing to consider
interactions between multiple variables.
Useful for Descriptive Analysis: Descriptive statistics, such as the mean, median, mode, and standard
deviation, can be easily derived using univariate techniques, providing essential insights into the
data.
Disadvantages:
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
SHSS PSY 01 01 03 C 4004
Credits: 4 (Hrs. /week: 4) Total: 100 marks
Internal Assessment: 30 Marks
Examination: 70 mark
NOTES
UNIT : 1 - Psychological Research: Nature, Characteristics, Need. Univariate vs. Multivariate
Approach;
Variables: Types, Control of relevant variables
Research Problem: Formulation, Sources, and Criteria.
Hypothesis: Types and basic concepts related with hypotheses testing, and Virtues of problem
and hypothesis
Definition of Psychological Research
Psychological research is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It aims to
systematically investigate human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors by applying the scientific
method. Psychological research allows for the understanding, explanation, prediction, and control of
behavior through empirical observation and data analysis
According to Kerlinger (1986), research is "a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical
investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses."
Nature of Psychological Research
Psychological research relies on empirical methods and follows a structured, scientific approach to
explore various psychological phenomena.
● Scientific Approach: Psychological research is conducted using the scientific method,
involving careful observation, data collection, and hypothesis testing. According to Kothari
(2004), research is "systematic, controlled, and empirical," ensuring that findings are
grounded in observable and measurable facts.
● Empirical Basis: Research relies on data from real-world observations or experiments, not
mere speculation. It focuses on producing objective knowledge based on evidence.
● Theory Development: Psychological research contributes to theory building by testing
hypotheses and refining existing psychological frameworks.
● Empirical: Based on observation and measurement of real-world phenomena.
● Systematic: Follows a structured process, including formulating hypotheses, collecting data,
analyzing results, and drawing conclusions.
● Objective: Strives to minimize bias and personal interpretation, focusing on factual evidence.
● Replicable: Research findings should be able to be reproduced by other researchers under
similar conditions.
, ● Testable: Hypotheses and theories can be tested through empirical methods.
● Cumulative: Builds on previous research findings, refining and expanding our understanding
of human behavior.
Methods used in psychological research:
● Experiments: Involve manipulating variables to determine cause-and-effect
relationships.
● Surveys: Collect data through questionnaires or interviews to assess attitudes,
beliefs, and behaviors.
● Case studies: In-depth examinations of individual cases to gain insights into rare or
unusual phenomena.
● Correlational studies: Examine relationships between variables to identify patterns
and associations.
● Observations: Systematic observations of behavior in natural settings or controlled
environments.
Ethical considerations in psychological research:
* Informed consent: Participants must be informed about the nature of the research and
agree to participate voluntarily.
* Confidentiality: Participant data should be kept confidential and protected from
unauthorized access.
* Debriefing: Participants should be informed about the true purpose of the research and
any deception used.
* Minimizing harm: Researchers must take steps to minimize any potential risks or harm to
participants.
The nature of psychological research is:
* Multifaceted: Encompasses a wide range of topics and methods.
* Evolving: New research methods and technologies are constantly being developed.
* Interdisciplinary: Draws on knowledge from other fields, such as neuroscience, biology,
and sociology.
Characteristics of Psychological Research
Objective: Research is designed to minimize bias and provide objective results. As Kothari (2004)
notes, objectivity is a critical characteristic of scientific research because it differentiates scientific
knowledge from mere assumptions or beliefs.
Systematic: Psychological research follows a structured and organized process, from identifying a
problem to interpreting results. Creswell (2018) outlines five essential steps: formulating a research
question, reviewing literature, collecting data, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.
Replicable: The ability to replicate research is crucial for verifying results. If other researchers can
replicate a study and obtain similar findings, the research gains credibility.
Controlled: Researchers control variables in experiments to ensure that the observed effects are due
to the independent variable (IV) rather than extraneous variables.
, Ethical: Research must adhere to ethical guidelines, such as ensuring informed consent and
protecting the privacy and welfare of participants.
Falsifiability: Psychological research involves hypotheses that can be tested and potentially
disproven. According to Popper (1959), a hypothesis must be structured in a way that it can be
falsified to be considered scientific.
Need for Psychological Research
Advancing Knowledge: Research fills gaps in existing knowledge, allowing psychology to evolve as a
science. It helps refine existing theories or propose new frameworks based on empirical findings.
Solving Practical Problems: Psychological research addresses real-world problems in education,
mental health, business, and more. It informs interventions like Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT),
which are supported by scientific evidence (Butcher et al., 2013).
Evidence-Based Practice: Psychological treatments and therapies rely on research findings to be
effective. Empirical research ensures that interventions are evidence-based and beneficial.
Policy-making: Psychological research guides policy decisions in areas such as mental health, public
safety, and education. Governments and organizations use research findings to implement effective
policies.
Technological Advancements: Research in psychology also contributes to fields like human-computer
interaction and artificial intelligence. By studying how people think and behave, researchers can
improve the design of technology to meet human needs better.
Univariate vs. Multivariate Approaches
Univariate Approach
Definition: A univariate approach involves analyzing one variable at a time, focusing on its
characteristics like central tendency (mean, median, mode) and variability (standard deviation,
range). This approach is useful for simple descriptive analyses.
Examples:
Mean height of participants: Researchers calculate the average height of a group.
Frequency distribution: Presenting how many participants fall into specific categories, such as age
groups.
Advantages:
Simplicity: Univariate analysis is easy to perform and interpret.
Clarity: It provides straightforward insights into a single variable without needing to consider
interactions between multiple variables.
Useful for Descriptive Analysis: Descriptive statistics, such as the mean, median, mode, and standard
deviation, can be easily derived using univariate techniques, providing essential insights into the
data.
Disadvantages:
