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Week 1: 9 September
Disinformation: Concepts and Contexts
Required readings:
MacKenzie, Alison & Bhatt, Ibrar (2020), “Lies, Bullshit and Fake News: Some
Epistemological Concerns.” Postdigital Science and Education, 2, 9-13.
The article explores the differences between lies, bullshit, and fake news, and their implications
for trust and knowledge in society.
Lies:
Defined as statements made with the intention to deceive, lies can cause significant harm by
eroding trust. They are deliberate attempts to mislead and can damage the credibility of
assertions and the integrity of communication.
Bullshit:
Unlike lies, bullshit is characterized by a disregard for the truth. The bullshitter is indifferent to
whether their statements are true or false, focusing instead on achieving their own goals without
concern for accuracy. This attitude, common in social media and public discourse, undermines
the value of truth.
Fake News:
The term "fake news" is often misused, particularly in political contexts. It can refer to
intentionally misleading news, but it also encompasses satirical or exaggerated content that may
not be meant to deceive. The misuse of this term, especially by figures like Donald Trump, aims
to delegitimize credible news sources by labeling unfavorable coverage as "fake."
The article argues that the prevalence of lies, bullshit, and accusations of fake news in digital
environments leads to an erosion of trust and epistemic authority. This creates a society where it
becomes increasingly difficult to discern the truth, leading to widespread epistemic
insouciance—a lack of concern for the truth. The authors emphasize that trust is foundational to
society, and without it, our ability to make informed decisions and maintain meaningful
relationships is compromised.
Moore, Alfred (2016), “Conspiracy and Conspiracy Theories in Democratic Politics”. Critical
Review, 28(1), 1-23.
, 2
Conspiracies vs. Conspiracy Theories:
1. Conspiracies: Historically, conspiracies have always existed, often involving covert and
unlawful actions by groups, such as Nixon’s Watergate scandal or secret experiments by
the U.S. government.
2. Conspiracy Theories: These are more recent constructs, emerging in the mid-20th
century, and involve speculative beliefs that often attribute significant events to hidden
and malevolent groups without solid evidence.
Role in Liberal Democracies:
1. Popper’s Perspective: Philosopher Karl Popper criticized the "conspiracy theory of
society," which attributes social phenomena to deliberate actions by powerful groups. He
argued that societal outcomes are often unintended consequences of many individual
actions, rather than the result of a grand conspiracy.
2. Hofstadter’s "Paranoid Style": Historian Richard Hofstadter described a recurring
“paranoid style” in American politics, where conspiracy theories are driven by fear and
resentment, often leading to exaggerated and irrational beliefs.
Impact on Politics and Society:
1. Crisis of Trust: Conspiracy theories have been linked to declining trust in government
and institutions, which can hinder effective governance and promote political
polarization.
2. Public Health and Security Risks: The spread of conspiracy theories can undermine
public health initiatives, such as vaccination efforts, and fuel extremist political violence,
as seen in cases like Timothy McVeigh or Anders Breivik.
3. Threat to Democracy: Persistent belief in conspiracy theories can challenge the
legitimacy of democratic processes and foster cynicism, potentially leading to
authoritarianism.
Critical Approaches:
1. Historical Context: Scholars like Gordon Wood argue that conspiratorial thinking was
once a rational response to political events, particularly in the 18th century. Over time, as
society became more complex, the focus shifted to unintended consequences of human
actions, marginalizing conspiracy theories.
2. Cultural Analysis: Cultural theorists suggest that conspiracy theories reflect real anxieties
about power and agency in a globalized world, where individuals feel powerless against
large, impersonal forces like capitalism and technology.
, 3
Contemporary Political Theory:
1. Networked Power: In modern democracies, power often operates through decentralized
networks rather than hierarchical command structures. Conspiracy theories may arise as a
way to make sense of these diffuse power relations.
2. Technological Conspiracies: The rise of information technology has created new elites in
Silicon Valley, who exert significant influence over society. Some argue this represents a
new form of technocracy, where power is wielded by experts rather than elected
representatives.
Political and Legal Implications:
1. Shifting Legal Frameworks: The article discusses how legal and political thought has
evolved regarding combinations of power, such as trade unions and monopolies, and how
this has affected the language and perception of conspiracy.
2. Hayek’s Anti-Conspiratorial View: Economist Friedrich Hayek argued against conspiracy
theories in favor of spontaneous order, where market outcomes are the result of numerous
individual actions rather than coordinated conspiracies. However, he also acknowledged
the potential dangers of monopolies and government overreach.
Challenges for Democracy:
1. Responsibility of Leaders: Democratic leaders have a duty to counteract dangerous
conspiracy theories, especially those that incite hatred or violence, or that undermine trust
in experts and institutions.
2. Balancing Representation and Truth: Political representatives must navigate the tension
between addressing constituents' fears and upholding truth and democratic values,
ensuring that they do not legitimize unfounded conspiracy claims.
Conclusion:
The article highlights the need to understand conspiracy theories not just as errors or delusions,
but as reflections of deeper societal anxieties. It calls for a nuanced approach that considers both
the historical context and the contemporary political landscape in which these theories arise.
, 4
Week 2: 16 September
Narrating Truth and Fiction
Required reading:
H. Porter Abbott, The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative (2nd ed., 2008), ch. 2, 11 (pp.
13-27; 145-159)
Chapter 2: Defining Narrative
● Minimum requirement for a narrative:
○ A narrative requires at least one event or action.
○ Some scholars argue for multiple events or a causal relationship between events
for a full narrative.
● Distinction between story and narrative discourse:
○ Story: The sequence of events in chronological order.
○ Narrative discourse: How the story is told, including its representation in
language, film, or other mediums.
○ Allows for non-linear structures and flexibility in storytelling.
● Mediation in narrative:
○ Narratives are always mediated, as we access stories through their telling rather
than directly.
● Events in narratives:
○ Constituent events: Necessary for the story's existence.
○ Supplementary events: Add depth and meaning but are not essential to the story’s
progression.
● Narrative time:
○ Narratives manipulate time by condensing, expanding, or reordering events.
○ Readers reconstruct the story’s chronological sequence mentally, adding richness
and complexity to the narrative.
Chapter 11: Narrative and Truth
● Explores the relationship between fiction and nonfiction, focusing on how narratives are
received and understood.
● Argues that the distinction between fact and fiction is not always clear-cut.
● Factual truth in storytelling:
○ Factual truth attracts audiences, who may forgive artistic flaws or narrative
suspense failures in favor of truth.
○ Excessive artistry or narrative drive can make the truth appear suspect, creating a
trade-off.
Week 1: 9 September
Disinformation: Concepts and Contexts
Required readings:
MacKenzie, Alison & Bhatt, Ibrar (2020), “Lies, Bullshit and Fake News: Some
Epistemological Concerns.” Postdigital Science and Education, 2, 9-13.
The article explores the differences between lies, bullshit, and fake news, and their implications
for trust and knowledge in society.
Lies:
Defined as statements made with the intention to deceive, lies can cause significant harm by
eroding trust. They are deliberate attempts to mislead and can damage the credibility of
assertions and the integrity of communication.
Bullshit:
Unlike lies, bullshit is characterized by a disregard for the truth. The bullshitter is indifferent to
whether their statements are true or false, focusing instead on achieving their own goals without
concern for accuracy. This attitude, common in social media and public discourse, undermines
the value of truth.
Fake News:
The term "fake news" is often misused, particularly in political contexts. It can refer to
intentionally misleading news, but it also encompasses satirical or exaggerated content that may
not be meant to deceive. The misuse of this term, especially by figures like Donald Trump, aims
to delegitimize credible news sources by labeling unfavorable coverage as "fake."
The article argues that the prevalence of lies, bullshit, and accusations of fake news in digital
environments leads to an erosion of trust and epistemic authority. This creates a society where it
becomes increasingly difficult to discern the truth, leading to widespread epistemic
insouciance—a lack of concern for the truth. The authors emphasize that trust is foundational to
society, and without it, our ability to make informed decisions and maintain meaningful
relationships is compromised.
Moore, Alfred (2016), “Conspiracy and Conspiracy Theories in Democratic Politics”. Critical
Review, 28(1), 1-23.
, 2
Conspiracies vs. Conspiracy Theories:
1. Conspiracies: Historically, conspiracies have always existed, often involving covert and
unlawful actions by groups, such as Nixon’s Watergate scandal or secret experiments by
the U.S. government.
2. Conspiracy Theories: These are more recent constructs, emerging in the mid-20th
century, and involve speculative beliefs that often attribute significant events to hidden
and malevolent groups without solid evidence.
Role in Liberal Democracies:
1. Popper’s Perspective: Philosopher Karl Popper criticized the "conspiracy theory of
society," which attributes social phenomena to deliberate actions by powerful groups. He
argued that societal outcomes are often unintended consequences of many individual
actions, rather than the result of a grand conspiracy.
2. Hofstadter’s "Paranoid Style": Historian Richard Hofstadter described a recurring
“paranoid style” in American politics, where conspiracy theories are driven by fear and
resentment, often leading to exaggerated and irrational beliefs.
Impact on Politics and Society:
1. Crisis of Trust: Conspiracy theories have been linked to declining trust in government
and institutions, which can hinder effective governance and promote political
polarization.
2. Public Health and Security Risks: The spread of conspiracy theories can undermine
public health initiatives, such as vaccination efforts, and fuel extremist political violence,
as seen in cases like Timothy McVeigh or Anders Breivik.
3. Threat to Democracy: Persistent belief in conspiracy theories can challenge the
legitimacy of democratic processes and foster cynicism, potentially leading to
authoritarianism.
Critical Approaches:
1. Historical Context: Scholars like Gordon Wood argue that conspiratorial thinking was
once a rational response to political events, particularly in the 18th century. Over time, as
society became more complex, the focus shifted to unintended consequences of human
actions, marginalizing conspiracy theories.
2. Cultural Analysis: Cultural theorists suggest that conspiracy theories reflect real anxieties
about power and agency in a globalized world, where individuals feel powerless against
large, impersonal forces like capitalism and technology.
, 3
Contemporary Political Theory:
1. Networked Power: In modern democracies, power often operates through decentralized
networks rather than hierarchical command structures. Conspiracy theories may arise as a
way to make sense of these diffuse power relations.
2. Technological Conspiracies: The rise of information technology has created new elites in
Silicon Valley, who exert significant influence over society. Some argue this represents a
new form of technocracy, where power is wielded by experts rather than elected
representatives.
Political and Legal Implications:
1. Shifting Legal Frameworks: The article discusses how legal and political thought has
evolved regarding combinations of power, such as trade unions and monopolies, and how
this has affected the language and perception of conspiracy.
2. Hayek’s Anti-Conspiratorial View: Economist Friedrich Hayek argued against conspiracy
theories in favor of spontaneous order, where market outcomes are the result of numerous
individual actions rather than coordinated conspiracies. However, he also acknowledged
the potential dangers of monopolies and government overreach.
Challenges for Democracy:
1. Responsibility of Leaders: Democratic leaders have a duty to counteract dangerous
conspiracy theories, especially those that incite hatred or violence, or that undermine trust
in experts and institutions.
2. Balancing Representation and Truth: Political representatives must navigate the tension
between addressing constituents' fears and upholding truth and democratic values,
ensuring that they do not legitimize unfounded conspiracy claims.
Conclusion:
The article highlights the need to understand conspiracy theories not just as errors or delusions,
but as reflections of deeper societal anxieties. It calls for a nuanced approach that considers both
the historical context and the contemporary political landscape in which these theories arise.
, 4
Week 2: 16 September
Narrating Truth and Fiction
Required reading:
H. Porter Abbott, The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative (2nd ed., 2008), ch. 2, 11 (pp.
13-27; 145-159)
Chapter 2: Defining Narrative
● Minimum requirement for a narrative:
○ A narrative requires at least one event or action.
○ Some scholars argue for multiple events or a causal relationship between events
for a full narrative.
● Distinction between story and narrative discourse:
○ Story: The sequence of events in chronological order.
○ Narrative discourse: How the story is told, including its representation in
language, film, or other mediums.
○ Allows for non-linear structures and flexibility in storytelling.
● Mediation in narrative:
○ Narratives are always mediated, as we access stories through their telling rather
than directly.
● Events in narratives:
○ Constituent events: Necessary for the story's existence.
○ Supplementary events: Add depth and meaning but are not essential to the story’s
progression.
● Narrative time:
○ Narratives manipulate time by condensing, expanding, or reordering events.
○ Readers reconstruct the story’s chronological sequence mentally, adding richness
and complexity to the narrative.
Chapter 11: Narrative and Truth
● Explores the relationship between fiction and nonfiction, focusing on how narratives are
received and understood.
● Argues that the distinction between fact and fiction is not always clear-cut.
● Factual truth in storytelling:
○ Factual truth attracts audiences, who may forgive artistic flaws or narrative
suspense failures in favor of truth.
○ Excessive artistry or narrative drive can make the truth appear suspect, creating a
trade-off.
