3.2 The Seven Years' War
Colonial Rivalries
Historic European rivalries, particularly between Great Britain, France, and Spain, had extended
from Europe to their colonies in the Americas. A pivotal war in the series of European wars in
the first half of the 18th century was the Seven Years' War (also known as the French and Indian
War). This was a war fought between 1754 and 1763 between the two sides: the French, their
colonists, and Native American allies vs. the British, their colonists, and Native American allies.
At the root of this conflict was control over disputed territory. Ultimately, the British, their
colonists, and their allies proved victorious. By the close of the 17th century, the French
controlled virtually the entire interior of North America. Yet, only 60,000 settlers lived in this
territory, working in the lucrative fur trade. In particular, the French constructed forts in the
disputed territory of the Ohio River Valley in order to halt the westward growth of the British
colonies. Hoping to impede French progress, the governor of Virginia sent a militia under the
command of young colonel named George Washington. Fighting broke out in the Battle of Fort
Necessity, and Washington was forced to surrender on July 3, 1754, after losing 31 of his men.
This was the beginning of the French and Indian War.
The War
At first, the war went badly for the British, with their troops suffering defeat after defeat.
Importantly, recognizing the need for coordinating defense, the British government called for
representatives from several colonies to meet at a congress in Albany, New York in 1754. At this
Albany Congress, the delegates from seven colonies adopted an agreement, the Albany Plan of
Union, developed by Benjamin Franklin. This Albany Plan of Union provided for an
intercolonial government and a system for recruiting troops and collecting taxes from the
colonies for their common defense. However, the colonies ultimately rejected the plan as they
were concerned about preserving their own taxation powers. Nevertheless, this failed plan
represented one of multiple early attempts to form a union of the colonies under one government,
setting a precedent for unity during the American Revolution. Gradually, the tide of war turned
in favor of the British in the late 1750s and early 1760s. By 1763, the French greed to a peace
treaty known as the 1763 Treaty of Paris. In this treaty, Great Britain acquired French Canada
and Spanish Florida, and Spain was given the French Louisiana Territory.
Impacts of the War
Britain's victory in the Seven Years' War was a turning point in the British extension of control
of North America. First, as a result of the war, Great Britain established unchallenged supremacy
among Europeans in North America. Second, the mutual victory among the British and their
colonies ironically sharpened tensions between the two. From the British perspective by the close
of the war, the colonists were inept militarily and selfish, since some colonies refused to
contribute troops or money to the war. From the colonists' perspective, the British troops and
leadership proved inadequate in navigating the wooded terrain of America; instead, they were
proud of their own contribution to the war effort. Third, the British abandoned the period of
salutary neglect, instead attempting to exercise more direct control over the colonies. This was in
part because the war was costly, doubling the crown's debt. By ending salutary neglect, the
,British hoped to make the American colonies bear more of the cost of maintaining the British
empire. In Pontiac's Rebellion, an alliance of tribes under Chief Pontiac stuck back, destroying
forts and settlements from New York to Virginia. Rather than relying on colonial forces, the
British sent British troops to put down the uprising. To protect British colonists from further
Native American attacks, King George III signed the Proclamation of 1763. Meant to stabilize
the western frontier, this prohibited American colonists from settling west of the Appalachian
Mountains, in Native American lands.
, 3.3 Taxation without Representation
Taxation without Representation
Following the Seven Years' War, Britain began to assert its power in the colonies, collecting
taxes and enforcing trade regulations more aggressively. From the British perspective, these
actions were justified as they were protecting the colonial empire. However, from the colonists'
view, each act represented an alarming threat to their liberties. As anger spread from
Massachusetts to Georgia in the 1760s and 1770s, colonial leaders drew on traditions of self-rule
and the influence of Enlightenment ideals. Colonists argued that their own taxes had to go
through their own assemblies; since they could not directly elect representatives to Parliament,
they had no way to consent to or oppose British actions. The British disagreed, arguing that all
British citizens had "virtual representation" in the government, since members of Parliament
represented the broad interests of the entire empire, including its colonies.
Phase 1, 1764-1766
Legislation: In the first two years after the Seven Years' War, King George III's chancellor of
the treasury, Lord George Grenville, pushed three measures through Parliament that touched off
anger in the colonies. First, the Sugar Act of 1764 placed duties (taxes) on foreign sugar and
certain luxuries. At the same time, the Revenue Act of 1763 more strictly enforced the
Navigation Acts, trying to smuggling by crown-appointed judges without juries. Second, the
Quartering Act of 1765 required colonists provide food and living quarters for British soldiers in
the colonies. Lastly, and most significantly, Grenville pushed Parliament to enact the 1765
Stamp Act, which required revenue stamps be placed on most printed paper in the colonies,
including legal documents, newspapers, playing cards, and pamphlets. Importantly, this was the
first direct tax paid by the colonists, meaning it was the first tax collected from people in the
colonies instead of previous taxes, which were strictly paid by merchants.
Reactions: Since the Stamp Act impacted colonists in every colony and every social class,
people in every colony reacted with anger. Calls for cooperative action among the colonies
culminated in the Stamp Act Congress, the first inter-colonial political meeting since the Albany
Congress in 1754. They met in New York City in October 1765, sending Parliament the
Declaration of Rights and Grievances, stating that only their own elected representatives had the
authority of taxation. At the same time, many colonists took matters into their own hands,
protesting in the streets and intimidating tax agents. The Sons and Daughters of Liberty, a secret
society, formed to organize intimidation actions across the colonies. They hanged and burned
effigies (dummies) of tax collectors and even raided and destroyed the mansion of the
Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor. In the end, however, the most effective form of protest
proved to be the boycott, in which colonists refused to purchase any article of British origin. In
response to pressure from London merchants impacted by boycotts, Parliament repealed the
Stamp Act in 1766. At the same time, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act of 1766, which
asserted that Parliament had the right to tax and make laws for the colonies "in all cases
whatsoever."
Colonial Rivalries
Historic European rivalries, particularly between Great Britain, France, and Spain, had extended
from Europe to their colonies in the Americas. A pivotal war in the series of European wars in
the first half of the 18th century was the Seven Years' War (also known as the French and Indian
War). This was a war fought between 1754 and 1763 between the two sides: the French, their
colonists, and Native American allies vs. the British, their colonists, and Native American allies.
At the root of this conflict was control over disputed territory. Ultimately, the British, their
colonists, and their allies proved victorious. By the close of the 17th century, the French
controlled virtually the entire interior of North America. Yet, only 60,000 settlers lived in this
territory, working in the lucrative fur trade. In particular, the French constructed forts in the
disputed territory of the Ohio River Valley in order to halt the westward growth of the British
colonies. Hoping to impede French progress, the governor of Virginia sent a militia under the
command of young colonel named George Washington. Fighting broke out in the Battle of Fort
Necessity, and Washington was forced to surrender on July 3, 1754, after losing 31 of his men.
This was the beginning of the French and Indian War.
The War
At first, the war went badly for the British, with their troops suffering defeat after defeat.
Importantly, recognizing the need for coordinating defense, the British government called for
representatives from several colonies to meet at a congress in Albany, New York in 1754. At this
Albany Congress, the delegates from seven colonies adopted an agreement, the Albany Plan of
Union, developed by Benjamin Franklin. This Albany Plan of Union provided for an
intercolonial government and a system for recruiting troops and collecting taxes from the
colonies for their common defense. However, the colonies ultimately rejected the plan as they
were concerned about preserving their own taxation powers. Nevertheless, this failed plan
represented one of multiple early attempts to form a union of the colonies under one government,
setting a precedent for unity during the American Revolution. Gradually, the tide of war turned
in favor of the British in the late 1750s and early 1760s. By 1763, the French greed to a peace
treaty known as the 1763 Treaty of Paris. In this treaty, Great Britain acquired French Canada
and Spanish Florida, and Spain was given the French Louisiana Territory.
Impacts of the War
Britain's victory in the Seven Years' War was a turning point in the British extension of control
of North America. First, as a result of the war, Great Britain established unchallenged supremacy
among Europeans in North America. Second, the mutual victory among the British and their
colonies ironically sharpened tensions between the two. From the British perspective by the close
of the war, the colonists were inept militarily and selfish, since some colonies refused to
contribute troops or money to the war. From the colonists' perspective, the British troops and
leadership proved inadequate in navigating the wooded terrain of America; instead, they were
proud of their own contribution to the war effort. Third, the British abandoned the period of
salutary neglect, instead attempting to exercise more direct control over the colonies. This was in
part because the war was costly, doubling the crown's debt. By ending salutary neglect, the
,British hoped to make the American colonies bear more of the cost of maintaining the British
empire. In Pontiac's Rebellion, an alliance of tribes under Chief Pontiac stuck back, destroying
forts and settlements from New York to Virginia. Rather than relying on colonial forces, the
British sent British troops to put down the uprising. To protect British colonists from further
Native American attacks, King George III signed the Proclamation of 1763. Meant to stabilize
the western frontier, this prohibited American colonists from settling west of the Appalachian
Mountains, in Native American lands.
, 3.3 Taxation without Representation
Taxation without Representation
Following the Seven Years' War, Britain began to assert its power in the colonies, collecting
taxes and enforcing trade regulations more aggressively. From the British perspective, these
actions were justified as they were protecting the colonial empire. However, from the colonists'
view, each act represented an alarming threat to their liberties. As anger spread from
Massachusetts to Georgia in the 1760s and 1770s, colonial leaders drew on traditions of self-rule
and the influence of Enlightenment ideals. Colonists argued that their own taxes had to go
through their own assemblies; since they could not directly elect representatives to Parliament,
they had no way to consent to or oppose British actions. The British disagreed, arguing that all
British citizens had "virtual representation" in the government, since members of Parliament
represented the broad interests of the entire empire, including its colonies.
Phase 1, 1764-1766
Legislation: In the first two years after the Seven Years' War, King George III's chancellor of
the treasury, Lord George Grenville, pushed three measures through Parliament that touched off
anger in the colonies. First, the Sugar Act of 1764 placed duties (taxes) on foreign sugar and
certain luxuries. At the same time, the Revenue Act of 1763 more strictly enforced the
Navigation Acts, trying to smuggling by crown-appointed judges without juries. Second, the
Quartering Act of 1765 required colonists provide food and living quarters for British soldiers in
the colonies. Lastly, and most significantly, Grenville pushed Parliament to enact the 1765
Stamp Act, which required revenue stamps be placed on most printed paper in the colonies,
including legal documents, newspapers, playing cards, and pamphlets. Importantly, this was the
first direct tax paid by the colonists, meaning it was the first tax collected from people in the
colonies instead of previous taxes, which were strictly paid by merchants.
Reactions: Since the Stamp Act impacted colonists in every colony and every social class,
people in every colony reacted with anger. Calls for cooperative action among the colonies
culminated in the Stamp Act Congress, the first inter-colonial political meeting since the Albany
Congress in 1754. They met in New York City in October 1765, sending Parliament the
Declaration of Rights and Grievances, stating that only their own elected representatives had the
authority of taxation. At the same time, many colonists took matters into their own hands,
protesting in the streets and intimidating tax agents. The Sons and Daughters of Liberty, a secret
society, formed to organize intimidation actions across the colonies. They hanged and burned
effigies (dummies) of tax collectors and even raided and destroyed the mansion of the
Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor. In the end, however, the most effective form of protest
proved to be the boycott, in which colonists refused to purchase any article of British origin. In
response to pressure from London merchants impacted by boycotts, Parliament repealed the
Stamp Act in 1766. At the same time, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act of 1766, which
asserted that Parliament had the right to tax and make laws for the colonies "in all cases
whatsoever."
