ENIP NOTES:
STUDY UNIT 1:
Quote on Pragmatics
• David Crystal: "Pragmatics studies the factors that govern our choice of language in social
interaction and the effects of our choice on others."
Definition of Pragmatics
• Pragmatics: The study of the relations between language and its users. It is the branch of
linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used. It focuses on
conversational implicature, the process in which the speaker implies and the listener infers
meaning.
Pragmatics in Conversation Example
• Example conversation: "Honey, are you okay?" - "Yes, I'm fine."
• Role of Pragmatics: This exchange highlights the implied meaning behind words, focusing on
what is not explicitly said.
Why Teach Pragmatics?
• Bardovi-Harlig & Mahan-Taylor (2003:38): There is a need for pragmatic instruction to avoid
misunderstandings. A pragmatic error can hinder communication and may make the speaker
seem rude or uncaring.
Promote Classroom Discussion
• Group learners together to foster classroom discussions, allowing them to express themselves
and listen to others.
• Physical Factors: Teach learners to maintain eye contact and listen attentively during
interactions.
How to Teach Pragmatics
• Learner Response: Provide learners with "think time" in class to respond, linking speaking,
listening, thinking, and learning.
Goal of Pragmatic Instruction
• The goal is to raise learners’ pragmatic awareness and provide them with choices in their
interactions. The focus is not on conformity to a specific target language but on familiarizing
learners with pragmatic devices and practices.
Cross-Cultural Pragmatics
• Stadler (2018:1): "The study of meaning negotiation between different cultures."
• This area studies communication between people from different cultures and languages.
Conversational Pragmatics
1
, • Based on cooperation to achieve a common conversational goal, implications can be derived
from responses in a conversation. For example, if a child says they’ve finished their math
homework, the parent might infer that other homework is unfinished.
Speech Act Theory
• Focuses on speech events such as compliments, apologies, refusals, requests, greetings,
complaints, and disagreements. Speech acts convey meaning beyond the literal words.
Politeness Theory
• Addresses directness and indirectness in speech acts, examining how politeness is expressed in
different cultures and how much it is valued relative to other societal values.
Applied Language Studies
• Involves competence in the interaction of language, users, and context. This includes the use of
formal and informal language, style, and register.
Pragmatics
• Pragmatics deals with the principles of language use that explain how extra meaning is conveyed
without being explicitly encoded in language.
• Focuses on what people mean by their utterances rather than just the meaning of words or
phrases in isolation.
Difference Between Semantics and Pragmatics
• Semantics:
o Language is considered intrinsic.
o Studies the meanings of sentences and words independent of language use.
• Pragmatics:
o Describes how meaning can’t be understood fully without considering the context of
language use.
Factors to Consider in Communication
1. Quantity: Provide enough information for the listener to understand.
2. Quality: Be truthful. Don’t say what you don’t believe or lie.
3. Relation: Be relevant in the conversation.
4. Manner: Present information clearly, briefly, and in an orderly manner.
Grice’s Four Maxims (1991) of the Cooperative Principle
1. Quantity: Be as informative as necessary.
2. Quality: Don’t provide false information or that which lacks evidence.
3. Relation: Make your contribution relevant to the conversation.
4. Manner: Avoid ambiguity and be clear.
2
,Gricean Principles
• Implicature: The implied meaning of an utterance that isn’t explicitly stated.
o Conversational Implicature: For example, “Are you watching this program?” might
imply “This program bores me. Can we turn off the television?”
o Scalar Implicature: The use of terms like "few," "some," "all" can imply different degrees
of the same action.
▪ Example: “Few people attended the wedding” implies “Not many people
attended, and not all people did.”
o Conventional Implicature: The use of specific words, such as "but," "yet," or "even," to
imply contrast or concession.
▪ Example: “John is short, but he is strong” implies a contrast between being short
and strong.
Presupposition
• Definition: An assumption made beforehand in a conversation or argument.
• Examples:
o “Jane no longer writes fiction” presupposes that Jane used to write fiction.
o “Have you stopped eating meat?” presupposes that the listener used to eat meat.
• Constancy under Negation: Presuppositions remain true even if the statement is negated.
o Example: “Sipho’s car is brand new” presupposes that Sipho has a car. Even if the
statement is negated (“Sipho’s car is not brand new”), the presupposition remains.
Entailment
• Definition: The logical outcome that follows from what is asserted.
o A sentence (A) entails another sentence (B) when A cannot be true unless B is also true.
o Example: “The president was assassinated” entails “The president is dead.”
o Test for Entailment:
▪ Negate statement B and combine it with A. If the result is a contradiction, then A
entails B.
▪ Example: “The president was assassinated, but the president is not dead”
results in a contradiction, confirming that A entails B.
Difference Between Presupposition and Entailment
• Entailment:
o Entailment is the relationship between sentences or propositions.
o Example: “The child was sick; hence, he went home.”
• Presupposition:
3
, o An assumption a speaker makes before uttering a statement.
o Example: “He went home early today” presupposes that the person normally does not go
home early.
Presupposition vs Entailment
• Example:
o (A) “She knows many songs.”
o (B) “She knows at least two songs.”
o Test whether B is entailed by A or is a presupposition of A.
Inference
• Definition: Additional information inferred by the listener to create a connection between what is
said and what is meant.
Summary of Key Concepts Learned
1. Implicature: The implied meaning behind an utterance.
2. Presupposition: Assumptions made by the speaker.
3. Entailment: What logically follows from a statement.
4. Inference: Additional conclusions drawn by the listener.
What Pragmatics Is
• Pragmatics focuses on how people interpret meaning based on context, beyond just the literal
meanings of words and sentences.
Grice’s Maxims
1. Quantity: Be informative.
2. Quality: Be truthful.
3. Relation: Be relevant.
4. Manner: Be clear and concise.
STUDY UNIT 2:
Visual Literacy
• We read images daily from various sources like TV, computer screens, magazines, and films.
• Visual Literacy refers to the ability to interpret visual images, much like how we interpret written
language.
• It has its own set of "grammar" and includes the interpretation of:
o Symbolism: Representing things with symbols.
o Semiotics: The social relevance of signs and symbols.
4
STUDY UNIT 1:
Quote on Pragmatics
• David Crystal: "Pragmatics studies the factors that govern our choice of language in social
interaction and the effects of our choice on others."
Definition of Pragmatics
• Pragmatics: The study of the relations between language and its users. It is the branch of
linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used. It focuses on
conversational implicature, the process in which the speaker implies and the listener infers
meaning.
Pragmatics in Conversation Example
• Example conversation: "Honey, are you okay?" - "Yes, I'm fine."
• Role of Pragmatics: This exchange highlights the implied meaning behind words, focusing on
what is not explicitly said.
Why Teach Pragmatics?
• Bardovi-Harlig & Mahan-Taylor (2003:38): There is a need for pragmatic instruction to avoid
misunderstandings. A pragmatic error can hinder communication and may make the speaker
seem rude or uncaring.
Promote Classroom Discussion
• Group learners together to foster classroom discussions, allowing them to express themselves
and listen to others.
• Physical Factors: Teach learners to maintain eye contact and listen attentively during
interactions.
How to Teach Pragmatics
• Learner Response: Provide learners with "think time" in class to respond, linking speaking,
listening, thinking, and learning.
Goal of Pragmatic Instruction
• The goal is to raise learners’ pragmatic awareness and provide them with choices in their
interactions. The focus is not on conformity to a specific target language but on familiarizing
learners with pragmatic devices and practices.
Cross-Cultural Pragmatics
• Stadler (2018:1): "The study of meaning negotiation between different cultures."
• This area studies communication between people from different cultures and languages.
Conversational Pragmatics
1
, • Based on cooperation to achieve a common conversational goal, implications can be derived
from responses in a conversation. For example, if a child says they’ve finished their math
homework, the parent might infer that other homework is unfinished.
Speech Act Theory
• Focuses on speech events such as compliments, apologies, refusals, requests, greetings,
complaints, and disagreements. Speech acts convey meaning beyond the literal words.
Politeness Theory
• Addresses directness and indirectness in speech acts, examining how politeness is expressed in
different cultures and how much it is valued relative to other societal values.
Applied Language Studies
• Involves competence in the interaction of language, users, and context. This includes the use of
formal and informal language, style, and register.
Pragmatics
• Pragmatics deals with the principles of language use that explain how extra meaning is conveyed
without being explicitly encoded in language.
• Focuses on what people mean by their utterances rather than just the meaning of words or
phrases in isolation.
Difference Between Semantics and Pragmatics
• Semantics:
o Language is considered intrinsic.
o Studies the meanings of sentences and words independent of language use.
• Pragmatics:
o Describes how meaning can’t be understood fully without considering the context of
language use.
Factors to Consider in Communication
1. Quantity: Provide enough information for the listener to understand.
2. Quality: Be truthful. Don’t say what you don’t believe or lie.
3. Relation: Be relevant in the conversation.
4. Manner: Present information clearly, briefly, and in an orderly manner.
Grice’s Four Maxims (1991) of the Cooperative Principle
1. Quantity: Be as informative as necessary.
2. Quality: Don’t provide false information or that which lacks evidence.
3. Relation: Make your contribution relevant to the conversation.
4. Manner: Avoid ambiguity and be clear.
2
,Gricean Principles
• Implicature: The implied meaning of an utterance that isn’t explicitly stated.
o Conversational Implicature: For example, “Are you watching this program?” might
imply “This program bores me. Can we turn off the television?”
o Scalar Implicature: The use of terms like "few," "some," "all" can imply different degrees
of the same action.
▪ Example: “Few people attended the wedding” implies “Not many people
attended, and not all people did.”
o Conventional Implicature: The use of specific words, such as "but," "yet," or "even," to
imply contrast or concession.
▪ Example: “John is short, but he is strong” implies a contrast between being short
and strong.
Presupposition
• Definition: An assumption made beforehand in a conversation or argument.
• Examples:
o “Jane no longer writes fiction” presupposes that Jane used to write fiction.
o “Have you stopped eating meat?” presupposes that the listener used to eat meat.
• Constancy under Negation: Presuppositions remain true even if the statement is negated.
o Example: “Sipho’s car is brand new” presupposes that Sipho has a car. Even if the
statement is negated (“Sipho’s car is not brand new”), the presupposition remains.
Entailment
• Definition: The logical outcome that follows from what is asserted.
o A sentence (A) entails another sentence (B) when A cannot be true unless B is also true.
o Example: “The president was assassinated” entails “The president is dead.”
o Test for Entailment:
▪ Negate statement B and combine it with A. If the result is a contradiction, then A
entails B.
▪ Example: “The president was assassinated, but the president is not dead”
results in a contradiction, confirming that A entails B.
Difference Between Presupposition and Entailment
• Entailment:
o Entailment is the relationship between sentences or propositions.
o Example: “The child was sick; hence, he went home.”
• Presupposition:
3
, o An assumption a speaker makes before uttering a statement.
o Example: “He went home early today” presupposes that the person normally does not go
home early.
Presupposition vs Entailment
• Example:
o (A) “She knows many songs.”
o (B) “She knows at least two songs.”
o Test whether B is entailed by A or is a presupposition of A.
Inference
• Definition: Additional information inferred by the listener to create a connection between what is
said and what is meant.
Summary of Key Concepts Learned
1. Implicature: The implied meaning behind an utterance.
2. Presupposition: Assumptions made by the speaker.
3. Entailment: What logically follows from a statement.
4. Inference: Additional conclusions drawn by the listener.
What Pragmatics Is
• Pragmatics focuses on how people interpret meaning based on context, beyond just the literal
meanings of words and sentences.
Grice’s Maxims
1. Quantity: Be informative.
2. Quality: Be truthful.
3. Relation: Be relevant.
4. Manner: Be clear and concise.
STUDY UNIT 2:
Visual Literacy
• We read images daily from various sources like TV, computer screens, magazines, and films.
• Visual Literacy refers to the ability to interpret visual images, much like how we interpret written
language.
• It has its own set of "grammar" and includes the interpretation of:
o Symbolism: Representing things with symbols.
o Semiotics: The social relevance of signs and symbols.
4
