Introductory questions
1. World history and globalization (global relations, colonialism,
imperialism, interaction between continents, comparative aspects).
Is there a globalizing world?
Yes, since in ancient times there was already exchange between
cultures (within for example the old empires of Mesopotamia), which
created an interwoven cultural agreement between peoples. This
has also continued into the present, with the invention of the
telephone, which now allows everyone to quickly and efficiently get
in touch with each other.
2. Cultural transformations and identity (communication, worldviews
and religion, science and technology, self-images). How do cultural
differences arise?
Due to the different views on things (for example religion), which
can lead to different ideas about the various aspects of a culture
even within one central culture.
3. Politics and government (tribes, cities, states, empires; power,
authority and violence; participation, representation, legitimacy).
How has authority been exercised over the centuries, and what
factors have determined the form of that authority?
The first form of authority dates back to antiquity, with pharaohs
and kings, who naturally claimed their power (and expanded it
through wars). After this came kings who divided their power in so-
called feudal systems, up to the present day with democratic
principles that originate from ancient Greece.
4. Socio-economic processes (production and consumption, labour and
capital, distribution of wealth, inequality, social stratification, social
security). How have people dealt with economic developments?
At first we underwent these developments without protest, but a
turning point came when the high lords began to demand more and
more from the farmers in the fields, who eventually revolted.
1. What do you understand by the terms 'antiquity' and the 'old world'?
Could these terms differ in different parts of the world, and if so,
how?
I see these terms as a description of the origins of history, with the
origins of writing (and thus the beginning of history). Although I
associate 'antiquity' more with, for example, the Roman Empire or
ancient Greece, I also associate the 'old world' with it. For me, there
is little difference so far.
2. Why is it important for scientists to study this period in history?
Since many of our modern principles originate from ancient times,
by examining this period we can better understand and apply these
principles in our modern society.
,3. Until the invention of a time machine, historians and archaeologists
do not have direct access to the ancient world. In order to
understand this period in history, scholars must first identify and
analyze their source material. What kinds of sources would
historians and archaeologists use to study the ancient world? Give
four examples, and try to explain what kind of knowledge each
source could provide about the ancient world.
1. Tablets, on which hieroglyphs are written, that can tell stories
about the ancient world.
2. Tombs, to see what the pharaohs were buried with, to see what
goods were considered important enough at that time to have
even in the afterlife.
3. Temples, to see which gods were worshipped (and for what
reason), for example Ra, to ensure that the sun would shine
every day.
4. Images, to gain insight into which customs/ (super)beliefs were
considered important in antiquity, for example the Venus of
Willendorf .
,Week 1: The Ancient Near East
1. What are the two systems used to classify the history of Ancient
Egypt? How did they come about and how do they differ?
The history of Ancient Egypt is divided into two ways, into
'kingdoms' and 'dynasties'. The division into dynasties comes from
the Egyptian priest Manetho , who wrote a history of Egypt in the
third century BC and discussed the thirty dynasties (which
sometimes ruled simultaneously), or royal families. The division of
Ancient Egypt is done by means of three 'kingdoms', which are
alternated with 'intermediate periods' of political fragmentation. A
distinction is made between the Old Kingdom (ca. 2600-2150), the
Middle Kingdom (ca. 2000-1800) and the New Kingdom (ca. 1550-
1100). In addition, there is a 'late period' (ca. 750-332) in which
Egypt had to deal with foreign dynasties and would become part of
various empires (for example Alexander the Great, the Macedonian
dynasty, the Romans, the Arabs, the Turks and the British). Egypt
became independent in 1922. ( p. 25)
2. Which factors contributed to continuity in Mesopotamian history and
which to discontinuity?
The position of Mesopotamia made it easy for invaders to reach
(including the Amorites). Within Mesopotamia, history was modified
by the many wars, famines and migrations, which resulted in
discontinuity. Nevertheless, Mesopotamian culture was only slightly
affected by the peoples coming from outside: they adapted (partly)
and adopted fixed customs, which resulted in continuity. In this,
Hammurabi's law code was of great importance for the social history
of Babylon (and thus all of Mesopotamia). ( p. 33-34)
3. In what ways is religion involved in the economy of Mesopotamia?
Religion is involved in the economy of Mesopotamia because there
were many temple domains with workers appointed by the king or
highest priest. Through this type of work one could earn money and
when during the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2100-2000) the state
dominated the entire economic life (among other things through the
redistribution economy and its function as a lender of money)
temples and other religious expressions became increasingly
important for the Mesopotamian economy. ( p. 71-72; 75)
4. What is the difference between henotheism and monotheism? What
important examples of these forms of religion do we find in the
Ancient Near East?
Henotheism is the belief that one god is the most important, which
automatically makes the other gods irrelevant. However, people
continue to believe in multiple gods. Monotheism is a form of belief
that assumes that there is one god. Henotheism is mainly found in
the kingdoms of Israel, Judah and Assyria, while monotheism is
mainly seen in Judaism and the Israelites from the Old Testament.
( p. 47-49; 66-67)
, Concepts
1. Irrigated agriculture
In the sixth millennium BC, irrigation agriculture was already being
used. This mainly happened in Mesopotamia and Egypt. It arose
from the lack of rainwater, which meant that crops could not grow
(and a solution had to be found). The population dug their own
tunnels and ditches, which made irrigation agriculture a fact. At that
time, this was one of the few jobs that could be done. When the Nile
flooded, the excess water could replenish the water supply.
2. Knossos
Excavated between 1900 and 1931 by the English archaeologist
Arthur Evans, who with his excavation has revealed several Minoan
civilizations. Knossos is the first city of Europe and has been
inhabited since 7000 BC. The city was destroyed in 1450 BC and
taken over by the Mycenaeans (descendants of the Minoan
civilization and existed in the late Bronze Age). In Greek mythology,
the city played an important role in the myth of the Minotaur.
3. Linear B script
A form of writing discovered around 1900 by the English
archaeologist Arthus Evans at Knossos in central Crete. It is an
archaic form of the Greek language, Mycenaean. It is a syllabic
script (a script consisting of written characters representing
syllables that make up words) consisting of 88 characters.
Ultimately, Evans was unable to decipher the script due to the
unsystematic approach he took in his attempts and the lack of
documentation.
4. Debt-bound / debtor
Those who could not repay a debt could end up in a form of
dependency that resembled slavery for a certain period of time.
That is why they were also called debt slaves. They had to work for
their creditor and thus repay their debt through the result of their
labor. The legal position of these dependents was often poorly
defined, which meant that debt bondage could sometimes continue
for more than a generation.
5. Mycenae
An important city in antiquity, centrally located in the Greek
landscape of Argolis. It was one of the most important political and
cultural centers of the Mycenaean civilization. The heyday of this
city was between approximately 1400 and 1200 BC, under absolute
monarchs, whose power was reflected in rich archaeological finds.
Mycenaeans had a rich culture, especially compared to the Minoan
1. World history and globalization (global relations, colonialism,
imperialism, interaction between continents, comparative aspects).
Is there a globalizing world?
Yes, since in ancient times there was already exchange between
cultures (within for example the old empires of Mesopotamia), which
created an interwoven cultural agreement between peoples. This
has also continued into the present, with the invention of the
telephone, which now allows everyone to quickly and efficiently get
in touch with each other.
2. Cultural transformations and identity (communication, worldviews
and religion, science and technology, self-images). How do cultural
differences arise?
Due to the different views on things (for example religion), which
can lead to different ideas about the various aspects of a culture
even within one central culture.
3. Politics and government (tribes, cities, states, empires; power,
authority and violence; participation, representation, legitimacy).
How has authority been exercised over the centuries, and what
factors have determined the form of that authority?
The first form of authority dates back to antiquity, with pharaohs
and kings, who naturally claimed their power (and expanded it
through wars). After this came kings who divided their power in so-
called feudal systems, up to the present day with democratic
principles that originate from ancient Greece.
4. Socio-economic processes (production and consumption, labour and
capital, distribution of wealth, inequality, social stratification, social
security). How have people dealt with economic developments?
At first we underwent these developments without protest, but a
turning point came when the high lords began to demand more and
more from the farmers in the fields, who eventually revolted.
1. What do you understand by the terms 'antiquity' and the 'old world'?
Could these terms differ in different parts of the world, and if so,
how?
I see these terms as a description of the origins of history, with the
origins of writing (and thus the beginning of history). Although I
associate 'antiquity' more with, for example, the Roman Empire or
ancient Greece, I also associate the 'old world' with it. For me, there
is little difference so far.
2. Why is it important for scientists to study this period in history?
Since many of our modern principles originate from ancient times,
by examining this period we can better understand and apply these
principles in our modern society.
,3. Until the invention of a time machine, historians and archaeologists
do not have direct access to the ancient world. In order to
understand this period in history, scholars must first identify and
analyze their source material. What kinds of sources would
historians and archaeologists use to study the ancient world? Give
four examples, and try to explain what kind of knowledge each
source could provide about the ancient world.
1. Tablets, on which hieroglyphs are written, that can tell stories
about the ancient world.
2. Tombs, to see what the pharaohs were buried with, to see what
goods were considered important enough at that time to have
even in the afterlife.
3. Temples, to see which gods were worshipped (and for what
reason), for example Ra, to ensure that the sun would shine
every day.
4. Images, to gain insight into which customs/ (super)beliefs were
considered important in antiquity, for example the Venus of
Willendorf .
,Week 1: The Ancient Near East
1. What are the two systems used to classify the history of Ancient
Egypt? How did they come about and how do they differ?
The history of Ancient Egypt is divided into two ways, into
'kingdoms' and 'dynasties'. The division into dynasties comes from
the Egyptian priest Manetho , who wrote a history of Egypt in the
third century BC and discussed the thirty dynasties (which
sometimes ruled simultaneously), or royal families. The division of
Ancient Egypt is done by means of three 'kingdoms', which are
alternated with 'intermediate periods' of political fragmentation. A
distinction is made between the Old Kingdom (ca. 2600-2150), the
Middle Kingdom (ca. 2000-1800) and the New Kingdom (ca. 1550-
1100). In addition, there is a 'late period' (ca. 750-332) in which
Egypt had to deal with foreign dynasties and would become part of
various empires (for example Alexander the Great, the Macedonian
dynasty, the Romans, the Arabs, the Turks and the British). Egypt
became independent in 1922. ( p. 25)
2. Which factors contributed to continuity in Mesopotamian history and
which to discontinuity?
The position of Mesopotamia made it easy for invaders to reach
(including the Amorites). Within Mesopotamia, history was modified
by the many wars, famines and migrations, which resulted in
discontinuity. Nevertheless, Mesopotamian culture was only slightly
affected by the peoples coming from outside: they adapted (partly)
and adopted fixed customs, which resulted in continuity. In this,
Hammurabi's law code was of great importance for the social history
of Babylon (and thus all of Mesopotamia). ( p. 33-34)
3. In what ways is religion involved in the economy of Mesopotamia?
Religion is involved in the economy of Mesopotamia because there
were many temple domains with workers appointed by the king or
highest priest. Through this type of work one could earn money and
when during the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2100-2000) the state
dominated the entire economic life (among other things through the
redistribution economy and its function as a lender of money)
temples and other religious expressions became increasingly
important for the Mesopotamian economy. ( p. 71-72; 75)
4. What is the difference between henotheism and monotheism? What
important examples of these forms of religion do we find in the
Ancient Near East?
Henotheism is the belief that one god is the most important, which
automatically makes the other gods irrelevant. However, people
continue to believe in multiple gods. Monotheism is a form of belief
that assumes that there is one god. Henotheism is mainly found in
the kingdoms of Israel, Judah and Assyria, while monotheism is
mainly seen in Judaism and the Israelites from the Old Testament.
( p. 47-49; 66-67)
, Concepts
1. Irrigated agriculture
In the sixth millennium BC, irrigation agriculture was already being
used. This mainly happened in Mesopotamia and Egypt. It arose
from the lack of rainwater, which meant that crops could not grow
(and a solution had to be found). The population dug their own
tunnels and ditches, which made irrigation agriculture a fact. At that
time, this was one of the few jobs that could be done. When the Nile
flooded, the excess water could replenish the water supply.
2. Knossos
Excavated between 1900 and 1931 by the English archaeologist
Arthur Evans, who with his excavation has revealed several Minoan
civilizations. Knossos is the first city of Europe and has been
inhabited since 7000 BC. The city was destroyed in 1450 BC and
taken over by the Mycenaeans (descendants of the Minoan
civilization and existed in the late Bronze Age). In Greek mythology,
the city played an important role in the myth of the Minotaur.
3. Linear B script
A form of writing discovered around 1900 by the English
archaeologist Arthus Evans at Knossos in central Crete. It is an
archaic form of the Greek language, Mycenaean. It is a syllabic
script (a script consisting of written characters representing
syllables that make up words) consisting of 88 characters.
Ultimately, Evans was unable to decipher the script due to the
unsystematic approach he took in his attempts and the lack of
documentation.
4. Debt-bound / debtor
Those who could not repay a debt could end up in a form of
dependency that resembled slavery for a certain period of time.
That is why they were also called debt slaves. They had to work for
their creditor and thus repay their debt through the result of their
labor. The legal position of these dependents was often poorly
defined, which meant that debt bondage could sometimes continue
for more than a generation.
5. Mycenae
An important city in antiquity, centrally located in the Greek
landscape of Argolis. It was one of the most important political and
cultural centers of the Mycenaean civilization. The heyday of this
city was between approximately 1400 and 1200 BC, under absolute
monarchs, whose power was reflected in rich archaeological finds.
Mycenaeans had a rich culture, especially compared to the Minoan
