Essentials of General, Organic, and Biochemistry Graded A+

Essentials of General, Organic, and Biochemistry Graded A+ What is the basic structure of a nucleotide? ️️ A phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base. What is the primary role of chloroplasts in plant cells? ️️ To carry out photosynthesis. What are the two purine bases in nucleic acids? ️️ Adenine and guanine. What is the main function of the Golgi apparatus in a cell? ️️ To modify, package, and transport proteins and lipids. What molecule acts as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain? ️️ Oxygen. What are the end products of the citric acid cycle? ️️ CO₂, NADH, FADH₂, and ATP (or GTP). What is the difference between competitive and non-competitive enzyme inhibition? ️️ Competitive inhibition blocks the active site, while non-competitive inhibition alters the enzyme's shape by binding to a different site. What is the structural feature that makes phospholipids amphipathic? ️️ They have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails. What process breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA? ️️ Beta-oxidation. What is the role of tRNA during protein synthesis? ️️ To carry specific amino acids to the ribosome and match them with the corresponding codons on mRNA. What is the function of lysosomes in a cell? ️️ To digest and recycle cellular waste and foreign materials. What is the main difference between passive and active transport across a cell membrane? ️️ Passive transport does not require energy, while active transport requires ATP. What is the role of coenzymes in enzymatic reactions? ️️ To assist enzymes by carrying chemical groups or electrons. What is the main source of energy for muscle contraction? ️️ ATP. What are the two main products of the light-dependent reactions in photosynthesis? ️️ ATP and NADPH. What is the function of the sodium-potassium pump in cells? ️️ To maintain the electrochemical gradient by pumping sodium out and potassium into the cell. What are the two main components of the cytoskeleton? ️️ Microfilaments and microtubules. What is the main difference between exergonic and endergonic reactions? ️️ Exergonic reactions release energy, while endergonic reactions require energy input. What type of bond forms between complementary bases in DNA? ️️ Hydrogen bonds. What is the role of the Calvin cycle in photosynthesis? ️️ To produce glucose from carbon dioxide using ATP and NADPH. Molecules ️️Chemical substances made of two or more atoms that are bonded together by covalent bonds. H20, O2, CO2, H2, N2, etc, are naturally occurring examples. Compare with ions, which are NOT held together by covalent bonds. Nonpolar molecules ️️A molecule with a even distribution of electrons; not separation of charge Octet rule ️️Atoms gain or lose electrons to obtain 8 in outer shell Dipole-dipole interactions ️️Intermolecular force of attraction between the permanent dipoles of two polar molecules Ball and stick model ️️A model of a molecule that represents atoms as colored spheres and covalent bonds as sticks. Its a tool for visualizing bond angles in a molecule. Electron geometry ️️the arrangement of electrons around the central atom of molecule Molecular shape ️️the arrangement of atoms around the central atom Dipole ️️A charge separation in a bond or a molecule Electrostatic interactions ️️The force of attraction between oppositely charged entities such as a proton and an electron or a cation and an anion Electronegativity ️️A measure of an atoms ability to attract electrons toward itself in a molecule Dispersion force ️️the only force of attraction between non-polar molecules, created by temporary attractions between induced dipoles Hydrogen bonding forces ️️the strongest intermolecular force of attraction that can exist between molecules. It typically occurs between the hydrogen atom in an N-H or O-H bond in one molecule and either an oxygen or nitrogen atom in another molecule. HF can also hydrogen bond, but it is not found in the body Bond length ️️distance between two nuclei joined by a bond Bond angles ️️the angles created by a central atom and any two atoms bonded to the central atom Molecular shapes ️️linear (HCl, F2, CO2), bent (H2O), trigonal planar (BF3), tetrahedral (CH4), trigonal pyramidal (NH3), trigonal bipyramidal (PCl5), square Planer(Xef4), octahedral (SF6) Space filling model ️️Shows the relative amount of space each atom actually takes up, but don't show bond lengths clearly. Polar molecules ️️a molecule that has a separation of charge. Formed when the centers of positive and negative charge in a molecule do not coincide. The bond dipoles in the model do not cancel Tetrahedron ️️electron groups around the carbon atom point to the four corners; bond angles are 109.5 Trigonal pyramidal ️️three bonding groups and one non-bonding pair of electrons around a central atom. Ex: ammonia Bent ️️two bonding and two non-bonding groups of electrons around a central atom Trigonal pyramidal geometry ️️The geometry of a central atom with a tetrahedral electron geometry and one nonbonding pair of electrons. Bond angles are 109.5 degrees Trigonal planar geometry ️️An electron geometry or molecular shape representing an equilateral triangle. The electron groups around the central atom point to the three corners of the triangle; bond angles 120 Linear geometry ️️An electron geometry or molecular shape resembling a straight line, formed by two groups of electrons surrounds a central atom with a 180 bond angle Mole concept ️️the chemist's counting unit. One ________ of any substance- element or compound- consists of 6.02 X 10²³ formula units of the substance. Ionic bonds ️️electrostatic attractions that hold anions and cations together, such as the lattice structure of an ionic compound Covalent bonds ️️the sharing of electrons between two non-metal atoms in a molecule Neutron ️️A subatomic particle that has no charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom Proton ️️A subatomic particle that has a positive charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom Mass ️️sum of the protons and neutrons located in the nucleus Size ️️The _______ of the atom is determined by its electrons Isotopes ️️Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons Mass number for an isotope ️️Sum of the protons and neutrons Valence electrons ️️outermost electrons of an atom; found in the shell with the highest N value Significant figures ️️All non-zero digits and zeros in a number that do not serve as place holders * / ️️Use rounding so there are no more significant figures that the value with the LEAST number of significant figures + - ️️Calculations cannot have more decimal places than the value with the FEWEST decimal places Protons ️️Atomic number for an element correspond to the number of _________ its atoms contain Group or family ️️Elements in the same column in the periodic table belong to the same ____________ Period ️️Elements in the same row of the periodic table belong to the same _____________ Main group elements ️️Groups 1A - 8A Valence electrons ️️Elements in the same group contain the same number of _________ Meter ️️base unit of length Gram ️️base unit of mass Liter ️️base unit of volume