Reading 1 marketing, goals, and learning
Behavioural learning is concerned with learning as a response to changes in the
environment
Cognitive learning theories focus on learning through internal mental processes and
conscious thought.
Learning is the activity or process of acquiring knowledge or skill by studying, practising, or
experiencing somethhing
Behavioural learning
Is concerned with learning as a response to changes in our environment (previous positive
experiences, will buy again)
First-order conditioning
Occurs when a conditioned stimulus (pairing of workout and dumbbell e.g.) acquires
motivational importance by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (something that
naturally triggers an automatic response). The reaction can be reversed
Evaluative conditioning
Are the changes in the liking of a stimulus linked to the pairing of that stimulus with other
positive or negative stimuli.
Higher-order conditioning
Is the pairing of two conditioned stimuli, this leads to strengthening. (a message together
with music)
Stimulus generalization
Occurs when a stimulus like a conditioned stimulus elicits a similar conditioned response.
Mostly happens with brands and extensions (fifa/heinz)
Operant conditioning
Is the changing of behaviour through reinforcement following a desired response.
- A fixed-ratio schedule (cafe nero stamps card)
- A fixed-interval schedule (sale three times a year)
- Variable schedules (gambling)
- Variable interval schedules (you expect the sale but don’t know when)
- Positive reinforcement schedule (designed to reward the targeted behaviour)
Cognitive learning
Concerned with internal mental processes. Has the potential to explain complex behaviour
and decision-making processes.
,It is based on the view that humans are broadly rational and use the information available to
make decisions.
It can be both high and low involvement and conscious or unconscious
Information processing model
Explains how communications are received by the consumer, interpreted, stored, and
retrieved.
- Exposure
- Attention
- Comprehension
- Acceptance/rejection
- Retention
Memory
Is a system and a process where information is received, sorted, organized, stored and
retrieved over time.
Three critical steps to information being remembered
- Encoding
- Storage
- Retrieval
Encoding refers to how information enters the memory, the message must be
comprehended unambiguosly for consumers to be able to make sense of and store the
information.
Memory systems
We have sensory, short-term and long-term memory
Sensory memory
Information is stored in sensory form and retained for a very brief period
Short-term memory
Current information is processed here, it’s limited to holding small amounts of information
for a short period. Grouping helps to remember things that are hard to remember like
telephone numbers.
Long-term memory
Has the potential to remember forever, getting memories here needs engrams, neural
networks connecting new memories with old, this involves rehearsal of information and
linkage with what is stored in the long-term memory.
- Procedural memory (how to ride a bike)
- Declarative memory (events that have taken place)
- Episodic memory (own life)
- Semantic memory (world)
,Retrieval of memory
There are different ways to retrieve information
- Recollection: reconstruct memory through a range of different narratives and bits of
information
- Recognition: retrieving memory by experiencing it again
- Relearning: process of relearning helps with remembering and retrieval
Retroactive interference is when new information you have had to learn excludes previously
learnt information.
- Explicit memory = conscious recollection of an experience
- Implicit memory = remembering without conscious awareness
- Aiding memory = repetition and spacing + position and duration + pictorial and
verbal cues
Reading 2
Introduction
Having a goal means to direct our behaviour purposefully toward something desirable in the
future whose realization we consider to be positive. Having a goal allows us to gather our
strength by regulating attention, concentration, readiness to work, and perseverance. It also
means to possess a specific competence or develop such competence that enables us to
decide whether we are succeeding or failing.
Goals controle our behaviour, structure our everyday life, and create coherence among
various seemingly unrelated parts in our behaviour. Goals affect learning and personal
development; they are one of the most important sources of personal identity and an
individual's emotional state.
Goals integrate cognitive, affective and behavioural processes and facilitate an interactionist
perspective of relationship between individual and environment.
Goals as defined by scientific literature are internal representations of desired states, where
states are broadly construed as outcomes, events, or processes
Different reasons for goals are
- Look forward to the activity that leads to goal realization
- Anticipate certain outcomes that take the form of achieving something pleasant
Four topics that occur in chronological order when pursuing goals
- Determinants and processes of goal setting
- Cognitive aspects of goals
- Determinants and processes of goal striving
- Determinants and processes of goal disengagement
Approaches can be divided into process and non-process-oriented
, - Process-oriented discuss the dynamic interaction between relevant factors over time
during the various phases between goal setting, goal attainment and disengagement
- Non-process-oriented subscribe to a static view of the individual factors that
contribute to goal setting and thriving
Types of goals and how they are measured
Personal goals are referred to as
- Current concerns
- Life tasks
- Possible selves
- Personal projects
- Personal strivings
- Self-defining goals
- Identity goals
- Developmental goals
Different methodological approaches
- Cross sectional
- Longitudinal
- Questionnaires
- Behavioural observation
- Psychophysiological and neuropsychological methods
Expectancy-value theory
Commitment describes the extent to which personal goals are associated with a strong
sense of determination. With the willingness to invest effort.
Expectancy-value theory says that desirability and feasibility of a goal determine which
goals and individual selects and how much they commit.
Personal determinants of a goal’s desirability (D) and feasibility (F)
- Implicit achievement, affiliation, and power motive (D)
- External factors that allow for the satisfaction of the needs for competence, social
relatedness, and autonomy (D)
- Relevance of a goal to superordinate identity goals (D)
- Personality traits (D)
- Personal values and social norms (D)
- Belief that personality traits can be altered (F)
- Self-efficacy and locus of control (F)
- Attributional style (D, F)
- Experience with similar tasks (F)
Common expectancy-value models do not specify how expectancy and value interact
Fantasy realization theory
So-called fantasies are transformed into binding goals that regulate behaviour.
Behavioural learning is concerned with learning as a response to changes in the
environment
Cognitive learning theories focus on learning through internal mental processes and
conscious thought.
Learning is the activity or process of acquiring knowledge or skill by studying, practising, or
experiencing somethhing
Behavioural learning
Is concerned with learning as a response to changes in our environment (previous positive
experiences, will buy again)
First-order conditioning
Occurs when a conditioned stimulus (pairing of workout and dumbbell e.g.) acquires
motivational importance by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (something that
naturally triggers an automatic response). The reaction can be reversed
Evaluative conditioning
Are the changes in the liking of a stimulus linked to the pairing of that stimulus with other
positive or negative stimuli.
Higher-order conditioning
Is the pairing of two conditioned stimuli, this leads to strengthening. (a message together
with music)
Stimulus generalization
Occurs when a stimulus like a conditioned stimulus elicits a similar conditioned response.
Mostly happens with brands and extensions (fifa/heinz)
Operant conditioning
Is the changing of behaviour through reinforcement following a desired response.
- A fixed-ratio schedule (cafe nero stamps card)
- A fixed-interval schedule (sale three times a year)
- Variable schedules (gambling)
- Variable interval schedules (you expect the sale but don’t know when)
- Positive reinforcement schedule (designed to reward the targeted behaviour)
Cognitive learning
Concerned with internal mental processes. Has the potential to explain complex behaviour
and decision-making processes.
,It is based on the view that humans are broadly rational and use the information available to
make decisions.
It can be both high and low involvement and conscious or unconscious
Information processing model
Explains how communications are received by the consumer, interpreted, stored, and
retrieved.
- Exposure
- Attention
- Comprehension
- Acceptance/rejection
- Retention
Memory
Is a system and a process where information is received, sorted, organized, stored and
retrieved over time.
Three critical steps to information being remembered
- Encoding
- Storage
- Retrieval
Encoding refers to how information enters the memory, the message must be
comprehended unambiguosly for consumers to be able to make sense of and store the
information.
Memory systems
We have sensory, short-term and long-term memory
Sensory memory
Information is stored in sensory form and retained for a very brief period
Short-term memory
Current information is processed here, it’s limited to holding small amounts of information
for a short period. Grouping helps to remember things that are hard to remember like
telephone numbers.
Long-term memory
Has the potential to remember forever, getting memories here needs engrams, neural
networks connecting new memories with old, this involves rehearsal of information and
linkage with what is stored in the long-term memory.
- Procedural memory (how to ride a bike)
- Declarative memory (events that have taken place)
- Episodic memory (own life)
- Semantic memory (world)
,Retrieval of memory
There are different ways to retrieve information
- Recollection: reconstruct memory through a range of different narratives and bits of
information
- Recognition: retrieving memory by experiencing it again
- Relearning: process of relearning helps with remembering and retrieval
Retroactive interference is when new information you have had to learn excludes previously
learnt information.
- Explicit memory = conscious recollection of an experience
- Implicit memory = remembering without conscious awareness
- Aiding memory = repetition and spacing + position and duration + pictorial and
verbal cues
Reading 2
Introduction
Having a goal means to direct our behaviour purposefully toward something desirable in the
future whose realization we consider to be positive. Having a goal allows us to gather our
strength by regulating attention, concentration, readiness to work, and perseverance. It also
means to possess a specific competence or develop such competence that enables us to
decide whether we are succeeding or failing.
Goals controle our behaviour, structure our everyday life, and create coherence among
various seemingly unrelated parts in our behaviour. Goals affect learning and personal
development; they are one of the most important sources of personal identity and an
individual's emotional state.
Goals integrate cognitive, affective and behavioural processes and facilitate an interactionist
perspective of relationship between individual and environment.
Goals as defined by scientific literature are internal representations of desired states, where
states are broadly construed as outcomes, events, or processes
Different reasons for goals are
- Look forward to the activity that leads to goal realization
- Anticipate certain outcomes that take the form of achieving something pleasant
Four topics that occur in chronological order when pursuing goals
- Determinants and processes of goal setting
- Cognitive aspects of goals
- Determinants and processes of goal striving
- Determinants and processes of goal disengagement
Approaches can be divided into process and non-process-oriented
, - Process-oriented discuss the dynamic interaction between relevant factors over time
during the various phases between goal setting, goal attainment and disengagement
- Non-process-oriented subscribe to a static view of the individual factors that
contribute to goal setting and thriving
Types of goals and how they are measured
Personal goals are referred to as
- Current concerns
- Life tasks
- Possible selves
- Personal projects
- Personal strivings
- Self-defining goals
- Identity goals
- Developmental goals
Different methodological approaches
- Cross sectional
- Longitudinal
- Questionnaires
- Behavioural observation
- Psychophysiological and neuropsychological methods
Expectancy-value theory
Commitment describes the extent to which personal goals are associated with a strong
sense of determination. With the willingness to invest effort.
Expectancy-value theory says that desirability and feasibility of a goal determine which
goals and individual selects and how much they commit.
Personal determinants of a goal’s desirability (D) and feasibility (F)
- Implicit achievement, affiliation, and power motive (D)
- External factors that allow for the satisfaction of the needs for competence, social
relatedness, and autonomy (D)
- Relevance of a goal to superordinate identity goals (D)
- Personality traits (D)
- Personal values and social norms (D)
- Belief that personality traits can be altered (F)
- Self-efficacy and locus of control (F)
- Attributional style (D, F)
- Experience with similar tasks (F)
Common expectancy-value models do not specify how expectancy and value interact
Fantasy realization theory
So-called fantasies are transformed into binding goals that regulate behaviour.
