Supervision Notes
Table of Contents
Supervision Notes.................................................................................................................................1
1: Introduction and Sources of International Law..................................................................................5
PQ Structure.....................................................................................................................................................5
Sources of Law..................................................................................................................................................5
1: Treaties...............................................................................................................................................................................5
2: General Principles of Law...................................................................................................................................................6
3: Judicial decisions and Teachings of Publicists....................................................................................................................6
4: Unilateral statements of declaration.................................................................................................................................7
5: UN Resolutions...................................................................................................................................................................7
6: Soft Law..............................................................................................................................................................................8
Custom (Customary International Law, CIL)......................................................................................................8
Jus Cogens/Peremptory Legal Norms.....................................................................................................................................9
Cases on Customary International Law...........................................................................................................10
Nuclear Tests Case (France v Australia/NZ) [1973]..............................................................................................................10
North Sea Continental Shelf Cases [1969] @ICJ...................................................................................................................10
Nicaragua (Merits)................................................................................................................................................................11
Nicaragua v US (Merits) [1986] @ICJ...................................................................................................................................11
Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion [1996] @ICJ................................................................................................................11
Dispute Regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v Nicaragua) [2009]........................................................11
Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965..............................................11
Asylum Case (Columbia v Peru) [1950]................................................................................................................................12
2: The Law of Treaties.........................................................................................................................12
PQ Structure...................................................................................................................................................12
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................13
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969 (VCLT).....................................................................................................13
1: Preliminary Requirements..........................................................................................................................13
2: Applicability of the VCLT?...........................................................................................................................13
3: Has Treaty been Concluded?.......................................................................................................................13
4: Is Treaty Valid/Void?...................................................................................................................................15
5: Reservations...............................................................................................................................................16
A: is there a reservation?.....................................................................................................................................................16
B: is the reservation permitted?...........................................................................................................................................17
C1: Effect of Permitted Reservation.....................................................................................................................................17
C2: Effect of Impermissible Reservations.............................................................................................................................18
D: Withdrawal of Reservation/Objection.............................................................................................................................18
Human Rights Treaties.........................................................................................................................................................18
6: Treaty Interpretation..................................................................................................................................19
7: Treaty Performance....................................................................................................................................20
Ending a Treaty...............................................................................................................................................20
Treaty Withdrawal................................................................................................................................................................20
Alternative Justifications – Treaty Termination/Suspension...............................................................................................20
, Case Law.........................................................................................................................................................22
Belilos v Switzerland [1981].................................................................................................................................................22
3: Non-Intervention (+ Use of Force)...................................................................................................23
PQ Structure...................................................................................................................................................23
Non-forcible intervention.....................................................................................................................................................23
Use of Force..........................................................................................................................................................................23
Historical Overview.........................................................................................................................................23
Prohibitions....................................................................................................................................................24
Threat/Use of Force (Art2(4) UN Charter)...........................................................................................................................24
Principle of non-intervention...............................................................................................................................................25
Exceptions.......................................................................................................................................................25
Intervention by Invitation.....................................................................................................................................................25
Right to self-defence (Art51)................................................................................................................................................25
UNSC Authorisation (Provisional, Non-Forcible and Forcible Measures.............................................................................28
Other Possible Legal Justifications for Use of Force............................................................................................................30
Continuing Sources of Controversy under the Charter........................................................................................................31
Cases...............................................................................................................................................................31
Case Concerning Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v United States of America)........................................................31
UNSC Resolution 1368 [2001]..............................................................................................................................................32
Palestinian Wall Advisory Opinion [2004]............................................................................................................................32
Case Concerning Armed Activites on the Territory on the Territory of the Congo (DRC v Uganda)...................................32
4: International Law and English Law.................................................................................................33
Dualist and Monist Approaches...........................................................................................................................................33
Relations of International and National Law...................................................................................................34
General Rules.......................................................................................................................................................................34
International Law’s Approach to National Law....................................................................................................................34
International Law before National Courts............................................................................................................................34
Res Judicata as between international and national law.....................................................................................................35
International Law in the Common Law Tradition.................................................................................................................36
Customary International Law...............................................................................................................................................36
Cases...............................................................................................................................................................37
Trendtex Trading Corp v Bank of Nigeria [1977]..................................................................................................................37
R v Prime Minister ex p Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) [2002] ......................................................................37
R v Jones (Margaret) [2006].................................................................................................................................................38
5a: Jurisdiction....................................................................................................................................39
Prescriptive:....................................................................................................................................................39
Enforcement:..................................................................................................................................................41
5b: State + State Official Immunity.....................................................................................................42
PQ Structure...................................................................................................................................................42
Features of state immunity:............................................................................................................................43
International Law.................................................................................................................................................................43
Definition of State................................................................................................................................................................43
Exceptions to Immunity from Prescriptive Jurisdiction...................................................................................44
Waivers.................................................................................................................................................................................44
Commercial Transactions.....................................................................................................................................................44
Exception for Territorial Torts..............................................................................................................................................45
Exception for HR vio/jus cogens norm.................................................................................................................................46
, Cases.....................................................................................................................................................................................46
Exceptions to Immunity from Enforcement Jurisdiction..................................................................................47
International Law.................................................................................................................................................................47
UK Law..................................................................................................................................................................................47
5c: Immunity of State Officials............................................................................................................48
Personal Immunity (ratione personae)............................................................................................................48
Diplomatic Immunity............................................................................................................................................................48
High-Ranking Official Immunity............................................................................................................................................49
Subject Matter Immunity (ratione materiae)..................................................................................................50
International Law.................................................................................................................................................................50
UK Law..................................................................................................................................................................................50
6: Statehood, Self-Determination, and Recognition............................................................................53
International Legal Personality.......................................................................................................................53
Statehood.......................................................................................................................................................53
Special Meaning:..................................................................................................................................................................53
Orthodox Definition..............................................................................................................................................................53
Other Factors..................................................................................................................................................54
Independence.......................................................................................................................................................................54
Recognition by Other States.................................................................................................................................................55
Legal Obstacles to Statehood...............................................................................................................................................56
Creation of a State: Self-Determination..........................................................................................................56
Right of self-determination: decolonisation........................................................................................................................56
Self-Determination outside of the Colonial Context............................................................................................................57
Restriction on the right of self-determination: uti possidetis principle...............................................................................58
International Law: Recognition of Governments.............................................................................................58
English Law: Recognition of States..................................................................................................................59
Exceptions to the non-recognition principle........................................................................................................................59
English Law: Recognition of Governments......................................................................................................60
Recognition by English Courts..............................................................................................................................................60
7: Territory.........................................................................................................................................60
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................61
Effectivités (v).................................................................................................................................................61
Who can perform these acts?..............................................................................................................................................61
Sufficiency of effectivités......................................................................................................................................................62
Corpus: Material Acts required............................................................................................................................................62
Animus: Subject Element – Intention required....................................................................................................................62
Modes of Acquisition of Title to Territory.......................................................................................................62
Occupation...........................................................................................................................................................................62
Prescription..........................................................................................................................................................................63
Subjugation/Conquest:.........................................................................................................................................................64
Accretion/Avulsion...............................................................................................................................................................64
Cession..................................................................................................................................................................................64
What are NOT Modes of Acquisition...............................................................................................................65
Discovery..............................................................................................................................................................................65
Contiguity.............................................................................................................................................................................65
Important Concepts........................................................................................................................................65
, Intertemporal Law (i)............................................................................................................................................................65
Critical Date (ii).....................................................................................................................................................................65
Recognition and Acquiescence (iii).......................................................................................................................................65
Estoppel (iv)..........................................................................................................................................................................66
Uti Possidetis Juris...........................................................................................................................................66
The Global Commons......................................................................................................................................66
1: The High Seas...................................................................................................................................................................67
2: The Deep Seabed..............................................................................................................................................................67
3: The Antarctic....................................................................................................................................................................67
4: Outer Space......................................................................................................................................................................68
Cases...............................................................................................................................................................69
Western Sahara....................................................................................................................................................................69
8: State Responsibility........................................................................................................................69
ARS Legal Status..............................................................................................................................................71
ARS Structure..................................................................................................................................................71
Foundational Points..............................................................................................................................................................71
The Internationally Wrongful Act (IWA) of a State (Part One).........................................................................72
1: Attribution (Art2(a)).........................................................................................................................................................72
2: Breach (Art2(b))................................................................................................................................................................75
3: Circumstances precluding Wrongfulness.........................................................................................................................76
Responsibility: The Content (Part Two)...........................................................................................................78
1: Continued Performance...................................................................................................................................................79
2: Cease IWA + Offer appropriate assurances + guarantees of non-repetition...................................................................79
3: Full Reparation for Injury.................................................................................................................................................79
Implementation of Responsibility of a State (Part Three)...............................................................................81
1: Injured State.....................................................................................................................................................................81
2: Any State other than Injured State..................................................................................................................................81
Diplomatic Protection (ADP)...........................................................................................................................82
1: Admissibility of Claims......................................................................................................................................................82
2: Injury Caused by IWA.......................................................................................................................................................83
3: Rights/Obligations of a State exercising Diplomatic Protection......................................................................................84
9: Dispute Resolution..........................................................................................................................85
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................85
Obligation to Settle Disputes using Peaceful Means............................................................................................................85
Scope....................................................................................................................................................................................85
Content.................................................................................................................................................................................85
Methods of International Dispute Settlement.................................................................................................86
Diplomatic Methods (Outline Only).....................................................................................................................................86
Legal Methods......................................................................................................................................................................86
ICJ: Overview..................................................................................................................................................87
UN Charter............................................................................................................................................................................87
ICJ’s Powers..........................................................................................................................................................................87
Applicable Law......................................................................................................................................................................88
Contentious Jurisdiction: Disputes between States.........................................................................................88
1: Has State Expressed Consent to ICJ Jurisdiction?............................................................................................................88
Genocide, torture, slavery, crimes against humanity,
,1: Introduction and Sources of International Law
PQ Structure
Treaties: State A is not party to treaty but many others are à does A have obligations under it?
1. intro
2. establishing treaty as CIL
a. declaratory
b. progressive development
persistent objector doctrine
baxter paradox
c. otherwise not CIL and A is not bound by it
3. treaty diverging from CIL
judicial decisions/teachings of publicists
1. intro
2. ICJ question: domestic judicial decision found X was a rule of CIL but decision was
criticised by academics – is the CIL rule binding on State A?
a. May be contended that the domestic court’s finding is inaccurate in itself
b. Criticism by academics – but not particularly influential (see below
Unilateral Statements of Declaration
UN Resolutions
Sources of Law
Art38(1) SICJ: (a) treaties (conventions which are expressly recognised); (b) customs (generally
accepted practice); (c) general principles of law; and (d) judicial decisions and publicist
teachings
o Criticism: omits important sources of int law and misrepresents the weight/nature of
others
o Purpose of Art38: guidance to the court about what it has to apply
other sources: (4) unilateral declarations/statements; (5) resolutions of international organisation
(UNGA/UNSC) and soft law
1: Treaties
international agreement concluded between states in written form and governed by international
law whether or not it is not embodied in a single instrument or in two or more related instruments
and whatever it happens to be called (VCLT)
relationship with CIL:
o may diverge from CIL and thus become lex specialis between parties concerned instead of
default customary rule (Continental Shelf (Tunisia v Libya))
o may be CIL if (ILC Conclusion 11, 2018):
codified a rule of CIL existing at the time it was concluded; (Nicaragua)
led to crystallisation of a CIL that had started to emerge prior to treaty conclusion;
or (Fisheries (UK v Iceland))
has given rise to general practice accepted as law thus generating a new rule of CIL
To bind: need to prove party accepted it
Art26 VCLT: binding upon parties to it + must be performed in good faith
Art34 VCLT: not binding on. 3rd states without consent
, o but may reflect/come to reflect customary int law à states that are not parties may be
bound by the same substantive obligation (though they are bound by custom, not treaty)
Baxter Paradox: treaty-making process may prevent further development of international law
until treaty is revised/amended – makes it static
Art18 VCLT: states may be bound by treaties even where treaty has not been ratified
o States under the obligation to refrain from doing acts that defeat the object and purpose of
a treaty before it comes into force when (1) it has signed the treaty (but not ratified) or (2)
it has expressed consent to be bound pending the entry into force of the treaty
2: General Principles of Law
Concerns regarding disputes which has no treaties or customary law governing it àled to the
development of general principles of law
What is this? 2 interpretations:
1. Principles common across many countries’ laws – can find thee by looking at different
national legal systems and see what they all (/majority) have in common
Barcelona Traction [1970]: ICJ used ‘lifting the corporate veil’ principle, derived
from national laws, to allow a nation to protect shareholders of a company
Texaco [1977]: French law of administrative contracts lacked sufficient acceptance
in other families of legal systems
2. Principles w/r to how countries should behave towards each other or rules that apply to
legal situations in general
e.g. agreements must be kept (pacta sunt servanda) or that more specific + newer
laws take precedence over more general/older ones
examples:
o principles of good faith (Nuclear Tests Cases, 1973)
o res judicata – causes of action may not be relitigated (Genocide Convention, 1996)
o reparation for damage caused (Chorzów Factory, 1927)
o principle of estoppel (Temple of Preah Vihear, 1962)
3: Judicial decisions and Teachings of Publicists
not sources of law per se, instead, help with interpretation
Judicial decisions:
o International courts + tribunal, particularly ICJ decisions and sometimes domestic courts
(ILC Conc 13, 2018)
o Art59: decisions of the ICJ are only binding for the particular case (i.e. do not set
precedent) but ICJ does refer to precedent as it aims for consistency (Exchange of Greek
and Turkish Populations) – so precedent can influence decisions, but is not binding
o Decisions of domestic/national courts may be considered by ICJ
Teachings of publicists:
o “of the most highly qualified publicists” (ILC Conc 14, 2018)
o Includes ILC work + individual scholars
o Draft Arts of the International Law Commission (empowered by the GA) – tends to be
influential since it is made up of well-respected international lawyers
o Influence?:
Crawford: courts have made little or no use of this
Exceptions:
‘teaching of publicists’ in Nottebohm
, Genocide (Bosian and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro): court
referred to Lemkin’s work – only time ICJ has referred to an individual
author by name
4: Unilateral statements of declaration
2006 ILC Guiding Principles
Requirements to be bound:
1. Intention of states to be bound (DRC v Rwanda, 2006; Nuclear Test Cases, 1974)
2. Clear and specific statement in its terms + must be publicly available (DRC v Rwanda,
2006; Nuclear Test Cases, 1974)
3. Form of statement is irrelevant – can be oral or written (Nuclear Test Cases, 1974)
4. Must be made by any state official authorised to represent the state internationally (DRC v
Rwanda, 2006)
Heads of State/Heads of Govt/Ministers of Foreign Affairs)
other officials within their sphere of powers
case law:
o Eastern Greenland Case [1933]: Denmark (D) claimed Norway had agreed not to
challenge D’s sovereignty over Greenland through a promise made by Ihlen, the
Norwegian Foreign Minister à on careful examination of words used + surrounding
circumstances à statement not binding as he cannot have meant to be giving there and then
a definitive recognition of Danish sovereignty over Greenland
o Nuclear Tests [1974]: France gave undertaking not to do more nuclear tests in unilateral
public announcements à binding
o DRC v Rwanda [2006]: statement made before UN Commission made generally not
binding
5: UN Resolutions
Security Council decisions (binding) + GA decisions (not binding)
UNSC decisions: binding on UN members (Art25, UN charter) – not a source of law per se, but
creates an obligation upon UN members
UNGA Resolutions: not binding but may provide evidence of CIL
o Cannot create but may provide evidence for CIL or contribute to its development (ILC
Conc 12, 2018)
o To establish whether it is providing such evidence, must look at content + conditions of its
adoption (Nuclear Weapons Advisory, 1996)
o Examples:
Nuclear Weapons Advisory [1996]: Resolution 1653 (XVI) was adopted with 55 in
favour, 20 opposed and 26 abstentions. Applying this to our facts à court noted that
although many UNGA Resolutions declare the use of nuclear weapons to be a
violation of the UN Charter, the fact they were adopted with a significant number
of negative votes and abstentions meant that they fell short of establishing opinio
juris.
Chagos Advisory Opinion [1965]: recognised right to self-determination as CIL via
a widely supported UNGA resolution
Nicaragua [1986]: ICJ used UNGA resolutions alone to define the prohibition of
force, demonstrating that resolutions can express collective state agreement on
legal rules
Table of Contents
Supervision Notes.................................................................................................................................1
1: Introduction and Sources of International Law..................................................................................5
PQ Structure.....................................................................................................................................................5
Sources of Law..................................................................................................................................................5
1: Treaties...............................................................................................................................................................................5
2: General Principles of Law...................................................................................................................................................6
3: Judicial decisions and Teachings of Publicists....................................................................................................................6
4: Unilateral statements of declaration.................................................................................................................................7
5: UN Resolutions...................................................................................................................................................................7
6: Soft Law..............................................................................................................................................................................8
Custom (Customary International Law, CIL)......................................................................................................8
Jus Cogens/Peremptory Legal Norms.....................................................................................................................................9
Cases on Customary International Law...........................................................................................................10
Nuclear Tests Case (France v Australia/NZ) [1973]..............................................................................................................10
North Sea Continental Shelf Cases [1969] @ICJ...................................................................................................................10
Nicaragua (Merits)................................................................................................................................................................11
Nicaragua v US (Merits) [1986] @ICJ...................................................................................................................................11
Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion [1996] @ICJ................................................................................................................11
Dispute Regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v Nicaragua) [2009]........................................................11
Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965..............................................11
Asylum Case (Columbia v Peru) [1950]................................................................................................................................12
2: The Law of Treaties.........................................................................................................................12
PQ Structure...................................................................................................................................................12
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................13
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969 (VCLT).....................................................................................................13
1: Preliminary Requirements..........................................................................................................................13
2: Applicability of the VCLT?...........................................................................................................................13
3: Has Treaty been Concluded?.......................................................................................................................13
4: Is Treaty Valid/Void?...................................................................................................................................15
5: Reservations...............................................................................................................................................16
A: is there a reservation?.....................................................................................................................................................16
B: is the reservation permitted?...........................................................................................................................................17
C1: Effect of Permitted Reservation.....................................................................................................................................17
C2: Effect of Impermissible Reservations.............................................................................................................................18
D: Withdrawal of Reservation/Objection.............................................................................................................................18
Human Rights Treaties.........................................................................................................................................................18
6: Treaty Interpretation..................................................................................................................................19
7: Treaty Performance....................................................................................................................................20
Ending a Treaty...............................................................................................................................................20
Treaty Withdrawal................................................................................................................................................................20
Alternative Justifications – Treaty Termination/Suspension...............................................................................................20
, Case Law.........................................................................................................................................................22
Belilos v Switzerland [1981].................................................................................................................................................22
3: Non-Intervention (+ Use of Force)...................................................................................................23
PQ Structure...................................................................................................................................................23
Non-forcible intervention.....................................................................................................................................................23
Use of Force..........................................................................................................................................................................23
Historical Overview.........................................................................................................................................23
Prohibitions....................................................................................................................................................24
Threat/Use of Force (Art2(4) UN Charter)...........................................................................................................................24
Principle of non-intervention...............................................................................................................................................25
Exceptions.......................................................................................................................................................25
Intervention by Invitation.....................................................................................................................................................25
Right to self-defence (Art51)................................................................................................................................................25
UNSC Authorisation (Provisional, Non-Forcible and Forcible Measures.............................................................................28
Other Possible Legal Justifications for Use of Force............................................................................................................30
Continuing Sources of Controversy under the Charter........................................................................................................31
Cases...............................................................................................................................................................31
Case Concerning Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v United States of America)........................................................31
UNSC Resolution 1368 [2001]..............................................................................................................................................32
Palestinian Wall Advisory Opinion [2004]............................................................................................................................32
Case Concerning Armed Activites on the Territory on the Territory of the Congo (DRC v Uganda)...................................32
4: International Law and English Law.................................................................................................33
Dualist and Monist Approaches...........................................................................................................................................33
Relations of International and National Law...................................................................................................34
General Rules.......................................................................................................................................................................34
International Law’s Approach to National Law....................................................................................................................34
International Law before National Courts............................................................................................................................34
Res Judicata as between international and national law.....................................................................................................35
International Law in the Common Law Tradition.................................................................................................................36
Customary International Law...............................................................................................................................................36
Cases...............................................................................................................................................................37
Trendtex Trading Corp v Bank of Nigeria [1977]..................................................................................................................37
R v Prime Minister ex p Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) [2002] ......................................................................37
R v Jones (Margaret) [2006].................................................................................................................................................38
5a: Jurisdiction....................................................................................................................................39
Prescriptive:....................................................................................................................................................39
Enforcement:..................................................................................................................................................41
5b: State + State Official Immunity.....................................................................................................42
PQ Structure...................................................................................................................................................42
Features of state immunity:............................................................................................................................43
International Law.................................................................................................................................................................43
Definition of State................................................................................................................................................................43
Exceptions to Immunity from Prescriptive Jurisdiction...................................................................................44
Waivers.................................................................................................................................................................................44
Commercial Transactions.....................................................................................................................................................44
Exception for Territorial Torts..............................................................................................................................................45
Exception for HR vio/jus cogens norm.................................................................................................................................46
, Cases.....................................................................................................................................................................................46
Exceptions to Immunity from Enforcement Jurisdiction..................................................................................47
International Law.................................................................................................................................................................47
UK Law..................................................................................................................................................................................47
5c: Immunity of State Officials............................................................................................................48
Personal Immunity (ratione personae)............................................................................................................48
Diplomatic Immunity............................................................................................................................................................48
High-Ranking Official Immunity............................................................................................................................................49
Subject Matter Immunity (ratione materiae)..................................................................................................50
International Law.................................................................................................................................................................50
UK Law..................................................................................................................................................................................50
6: Statehood, Self-Determination, and Recognition............................................................................53
International Legal Personality.......................................................................................................................53
Statehood.......................................................................................................................................................53
Special Meaning:..................................................................................................................................................................53
Orthodox Definition..............................................................................................................................................................53
Other Factors..................................................................................................................................................54
Independence.......................................................................................................................................................................54
Recognition by Other States.................................................................................................................................................55
Legal Obstacles to Statehood...............................................................................................................................................56
Creation of a State: Self-Determination..........................................................................................................56
Right of self-determination: decolonisation........................................................................................................................56
Self-Determination outside of the Colonial Context............................................................................................................57
Restriction on the right of self-determination: uti possidetis principle...............................................................................58
International Law: Recognition of Governments.............................................................................................58
English Law: Recognition of States..................................................................................................................59
Exceptions to the non-recognition principle........................................................................................................................59
English Law: Recognition of Governments......................................................................................................60
Recognition by English Courts..............................................................................................................................................60
7: Territory.........................................................................................................................................60
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................61
Effectivités (v).................................................................................................................................................61
Who can perform these acts?..............................................................................................................................................61
Sufficiency of effectivités......................................................................................................................................................62
Corpus: Material Acts required............................................................................................................................................62
Animus: Subject Element – Intention required....................................................................................................................62
Modes of Acquisition of Title to Territory.......................................................................................................62
Occupation...........................................................................................................................................................................62
Prescription..........................................................................................................................................................................63
Subjugation/Conquest:.........................................................................................................................................................64
Accretion/Avulsion...............................................................................................................................................................64
Cession..................................................................................................................................................................................64
What are NOT Modes of Acquisition...............................................................................................................65
Discovery..............................................................................................................................................................................65
Contiguity.............................................................................................................................................................................65
Important Concepts........................................................................................................................................65
, Intertemporal Law (i)............................................................................................................................................................65
Critical Date (ii).....................................................................................................................................................................65
Recognition and Acquiescence (iii).......................................................................................................................................65
Estoppel (iv)..........................................................................................................................................................................66
Uti Possidetis Juris...........................................................................................................................................66
The Global Commons......................................................................................................................................66
1: The High Seas...................................................................................................................................................................67
2: The Deep Seabed..............................................................................................................................................................67
3: The Antarctic....................................................................................................................................................................67
4: Outer Space......................................................................................................................................................................68
Cases...............................................................................................................................................................69
Western Sahara....................................................................................................................................................................69
8: State Responsibility........................................................................................................................69
ARS Legal Status..............................................................................................................................................71
ARS Structure..................................................................................................................................................71
Foundational Points..............................................................................................................................................................71
The Internationally Wrongful Act (IWA) of a State (Part One).........................................................................72
1: Attribution (Art2(a)).........................................................................................................................................................72
2: Breach (Art2(b))................................................................................................................................................................75
3: Circumstances precluding Wrongfulness.........................................................................................................................76
Responsibility: The Content (Part Two)...........................................................................................................78
1: Continued Performance...................................................................................................................................................79
2: Cease IWA + Offer appropriate assurances + guarantees of non-repetition...................................................................79
3: Full Reparation for Injury.................................................................................................................................................79
Implementation of Responsibility of a State (Part Three)...............................................................................81
1: Injured State.....................................................................................................................................................................81
2: Any State other than Injured State..................................................................................................................................81
Diplomatic Protection (ADP)...........................................................................................................................82
1: Admissibility of Claims......................................................................................................................................................82
2: Injury Caused by IWA.......................................................................................................................................................83
3: Rights/Obligations of a State exercising Diplomatic Protection......................................................................................84
9: Dispute Resolution..........................................................................................................................85
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................85
Obligation to Settle Disputes using Peaceful Means............................................................................................................85
Scope....................................................................................................................................................................................85
Content.................................................................................................................................................................................85
Methods of International Dispute Settlement.................................................................................................86
Diplomatic Methods (Outline Only).....................................................................................................................................86
Legal Methods......................................................................................................................................................................86
ICJ: Overview..................................................................................................................................................87
UN Charter............................................................................................................................................................................87
ICJ’s Powers..........................................................................................................................................................................87
Applicable Law......................................................................................................................................................................88
Contentious Jurisdiction: Disputes between States.........................................................................................88
1: Has State Expressed Consent to ICJ Jurisdiction?............................................................................................................88
Genocide, torture, slavery, crimes against humanity,
,1: Introduction and Sources of International Law
PQ Structure
Treaties: State A is not party to treaty but many others are à does A have obligations under it?
1. intro
2. establishing treaty as CIL
a. declaratory
b. progressive development
persistent objector doctrine
baxter paradox
c. otherwise not CIL and A is not bound by it
3. treaty diverging from CIL
judicial decisions/teachings of publicists
1. intro
2. ICJ question: domestic judicial decision found X was a rule of CIL but decision was
criticised by academics – is the CIL rule binding on State A?
a. May be contended that the domestic court’s finding is inaccurate in itself
b. Criticism by academics – but not particularly influential (see below
Unilateral Statements of Declaration
UN Resolutions
Sources of Law
Art38(1) SICJ: (a) treaties (conventions which are expressly recognised); (b) customs (generally
accepted practice); (c) general principles of law; and (d) judicial decisions and publicist
teachings
o Criticism: omits important sources of int law and misrepresents the weight/nature of
others
o Purpose of Art38: guidance to the court about what it has to apply
other sources: (4) unilateral declarations/statements; (5) resolutions of international organisation
(UNGA/UNSC) and soft law
1: Treaties
international agreement concluded between states in written form and governed by international
law whether or not it is not embodied in a single instrument or in two or more related instruments
and whatever it happens to be called (VCLT)
relationship with CIL:
o may diverge from CIL and thus become lex specialis between parties concerned instead of
default customary rule (Continental Shelf (Tunisia v Libya))
o may be CIL if (ILC Conclusion 11, 2018):
codified a rule of CIL existing at the time it was concluded; (Nicaragua)
led to crystallisation of a CIL that had started to emerge prior to treaty conclusion;
or (Fisheries (UK v Iceland))
has given rise to general practice accepted as law thus generating a new rule of CIL
To bind: need to prove party accepted it
Art26 VCLT: binding upon parties to it + must be performed in good faith
Art34 VCLT: not binding on. 3rd states without consent
, o but may reflect/come to reflect customary int law à states that are not parties may be
bound by the same substantive obligation (though they are bound by custom, not treaty)
Baxter Paradox: treaty-making process may prevent further development of international law
until treaty is revised/amended – makes it static
Art18 VCLT: states may be bound by treaties even where treaty has not been ratified
o States under the obligation to refrain from doing acts that defeat the object and purpose of
a treaty before it comes into force when (1) it has signed the treaty (but not ratified) or (2)
it has expressed consent to be bound pending the entry into force of the treaty
2: General Principles of Law
Concerns regarding disputes which has no treaties or customary law governing it àled to the
development of general principles of law
What is this? 2 interpretations:
1. Principles common across many countries’ laws – can find thee by looking at different
national legal systems and see what they all (/majority) have in common
Barcelona Traction [1970]: ICJ used ‘lifting the corporate veil’ principle, derived
from national laws, to allow a nation to protect shareholders of a company
Texaco [1977]: French law of administrative contracts lacked sufficient acceptance
in other families of legal systems
2. Principles w/r to how countries should behave towards each other or rules that apply to
legal situations in general
e.g. agreements must be kept (pacta sunt servanda) or that more specific + newer
laws take precedence over more general/older ones
examples:
o principles of good faith (Nuclear Tests Cases, 1973)
o res judicata – causes of action may not be relitigated (Genocide Convention, 1996)
o reparation for damage caused (Chorzów Factory, 1927)
o principle of estoppel (Temple of Preah Vihear, 1962)
3: Judicial decisions and Teachings of Publicists
not sources of law per se, instead, help with interpretation
Judicial decisions:
o International courts + tribunal, particularly ICJ decisions and sometimes domestic courts
(ILC Conc 13, 2018)
o Art59: decisions of the ICJ are only binding for the particular case (i.e. do not set
precedent) but ICJ does refer to precedent as it aims for consistency (Exchange of Greek
and Turkish Populations) – so precedent can influence decisions, but is not binding
o Decisions of domestic/national courts may be considered by ICJ
Teachings of publicists:
o “of the most highly qualified publicists” (ILC Conc 14, 2018)
o Includes ILC work + individual scholars
o Draft Arts of the International Law Commission (empowered by the GA) – tends to be
influential since it is made up of well-respected international lawyers
o Influence?:
Crawford: courts have made little or no use of this
Exceptions:
‘teaching of publicists’ in Nottebohm
, Genocide (Bosian and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro): court
referred to Lemkin’s work – only time ICJ has referred to an individual
author by name
4: Unilateral statements of declaration
2006 ILC Guiding Principles
Requirements to be bound:
1. Intention of states to be bound (DRC v Rwanda, 2006; Nuclear Test Cases, 1974)
2. Clear and specific statement in its terms + must be publicly available (DRC v Rwanda,
2006; Nuclear Test Cases, 1974)
3. Form of statement is irrelevant – can be oral or written (Nuclear Test Cases, 1974)
4. Must be made by any state official authorised to represent the state internationally (DRC v
Rwanda, 2006)
Heads of State/Heads of Govt/Ministers of Foreign Affairs)
other officials within their sphere of powers
case law:
o Eastern Greenland Case [1933]: Denmark (D) claimed Norway had agreed not to
challenge D’s sovereignty over Greenland through a promise made by Ihlen, the
Norwegian Foreign Minister à on careful examination of words used + surrounding
circumstances à statement not binding as he cannot have meant to be giving there and then
a definitive recognition of Danish sovereignty over Greenland
o Nuclear Tests [1974]: France gave undertaking not to do more nuclear tests in unilateral
public announcements à binding
o DRC v Rwanda [2006]: statement made before UN Commission made generally not
binding
5: UN Resolutions
Security Council decisions (binding) + GA decisions (not binding)
UNSC decisions: binding on UN members (Art25, UN charter) – not a source of law per se, but
creates an obligation upon UN members
UNGA Resolutions: not binding but may provide evidence of CIL
o Cannot create but may provide evidence for CIL or contribute to its development (ILC
Conc 12, 2018)
o To establish whether it is providing such evidence, must look at content + conditions of its
adoption (Nuclear Weapons Advisory, 1996)
o Examples:
Nuclear Weapons Advisory [1996]: Resolution 1653 (XVI) was adopted with 55 in
favour, 20 opposed and 26 abstentions. Applying this to our facts à court noted that
although many UNGA Resolutions declare the use of nuclear weapons to be a
violation of the UN Charter, the fact they were adopted with a significant number
of negative votes and abstentions meant that they fell short of establishing opinio
juris.
Chagos Advisory Opinion [1965]: recognised right to self-determination as CIL via
a widely supported UNGA resolution
Nicaragua [1986]: ICJ used UNGA resolutions alone to define the prohibition of
force, demonstrating that resolutions can express collective state agreement on
legal rules
