©JOSHCLAY 2024/2025. YEAR PUBLISHED 2024.
PNB 2274 Final Exam Review Questions
and Answers 100% Solved
anatomy - ✔✔how does it look?
physiology - ✔✔what does it do?
gross anatomy - ✔✔structures you can see with the naked eye
microscopic anatomy - ✔✔structures you can only see with magnification,
cells/ tissues
anatomy position - ✔✔standing upright, palms facing out, feet on the floor,
facing forward
anterior - ✔✔orientation term, front
posterior - ✔✔orientation term, back
ventral - ✔✔orientation term, front (animal)
dorsal - ✔✔orientation term, back (animal)
medial - ✔✔orientation term, towards the middle
lateral - ✔✔orientation term, towards the side
,©JOSHCLAY 2024/2025. YEAR PUBLISHED 2024.
proximal - ✔✔orientation term, close to
distal - ✔✔orientation term, far from
coronal plane - ✔✔frontal plane
transverse plane - ✔✔horizontal plane
midsaggital plane - ✔✔middle plane
homeostasis - ✔✔the tendency of an organism to maintain a stable internal
environment, though the external environment changes
reflex control - ✔✔long distance control of homeostasis, using either neural
or hormonal signals
local control - ✔✔control of homeostasis at a cellular level, isolated
changes in a few cells or a tissue (i.e. environment of the cell, fluid level,
etc)
input, controller, output - ✔✔3 major components of homeostatic
mechanism
input - ✔✔the signal of the homeostatic mechanism; something is changing
and needs to be adjusted; stimulus detected by a sensor
,©JOSHCLAY 2024/2025. YEAR PUBLISHED 2024.
controller - ✔✔aka integrating center, makes a decision about what to do
about the stimulus, often the CNS
output - ✔✔in homeostatic mechanism, this signal is how the correction is
made. Needs a target or effector
set point - ✔✔in homeostatic mechanisms, this range determines what is
within healthy boundaries. A high enough error will result in an output. Can
be modified (i.e. fever to combat infection)
insulin - ✔✔lowers blood glucose levels to maintain homeostasis
glucagon - ✔✔increases blood glucose levels to maintain homeostasis
negative feedback - ✔✔feedback loops that works to return the state of the
organism back to the set point. Maintains homeostasis by counteracting
disruption. Self terminating
Positive feedback - ✔✔feedback loops that amplify the stimulus, output is
fed back into the system to increase output. These do not shut themselves
off, require outside factors
positive feedback - ✔✔Hormone control during childbirth, lactation, and
blood clotting are examples of this type of feedback
, ©JOSHCLAY 2024/2025. YEAR PUBLISHED 2024.
negative feedback - ✔✔glucose levels, heart rate, etc. are examples of this
type of feedback
phospholipid bilayer - ✔✔composed of hydrophobic tails and heads; fluid
mosaic; forms the plasma membrane. Serves as a physical barrier,
gateway for exchange, communication, and attachment site
passive transport - ✔✔transport that requires no extra energy; movement
occurs randomly from areas of high concentration to low concentration
active transport - ✔✔transport that requires energy typically in the form of
ATP; molecules are moved from areas of low concentration to high
concentration, AGAINST concentration gradient
simple diffusion - ✔✔random motion of molecules in solution that results in
spread of molecules from areas of high concentration to low concentration.
Net movement until the concentrations are equal. Can occur in open
system or across partition (plasma membrane)
flux - ✔✔how much does a concentration drop over a distance; overall flow
Fick's Law - ✔✔describes the movement of molecules in 1 dimension. The
overall flow is the negative of the product of the diffusion coefficient and
concentration gradient
PNB 2274 Final Exam Review Questions
and Answers 100% Solved
anatomy - ✔✔how does it look?
physiology - ✔✔what does it do?
gross anatomy - ✔✔structures you can see with the naked eye
microscopic anatomy - ✔✔structures you can only see with magnification,
cells/ tissues
anatomy position - ✔✔standing upright, palms facing out, feet on the floor,
facing forward
anterior - ✔✔orientation term, front
posterior - ✔✔orientation term, back
ventral - ✔✔orientation term, front (animal)
dorsal - ✔✔orientation term, back (animal)
medial - ✔✔orientation term, towards the middle
lateral - ✔✔orientation term, towards the side
,©JOSHCLAY 2024/2025. YEAR PUBLISHED 2024.
proximal - ✔✔orientation term, close to
distal - ✔✔orientation term, far from
coronal plane - ✔✔frontal plane
transverse plane - ✔✔horizontal plane
midsaggital plane - ✔✔middle plane
homeostasis - ✔✔the tendency of an organism to maintain a stable internal
environment, though the external environment changes
reflex control - ✔✔long distance control of homeostasis, using either neural
or hormonal signals
local control - ✔✔control of homeostasis at a cellular level, isolated
changes in a few cells or a tissue (i.e. environment of the cell, fluid level,
etc)
input, controller, output - ✔✔3 major components of homeostatic
mechanism
input - ✔✔the signal of the homeostatic mechanism; something is changing
and needs to be adjusted; stimulus detected by a sensor
,©JOSHCLAY 2024/2025. YEAR PUBLISHED 2024.
controller - ✔✔aka integrating center, makes a decision about what to do
about the stimulus, often the CNS
output - ✔✔in homeostatic mechanism, this signal is how the correction is
made. Needs a target or effector
set point - ✔✔in homeostatic mechanisms, this range determines what is
within healthy boundaries. A high enough error will result in an output. Can
be modified (i.e. fever to combat infection)
insulin - ✔✔lowers blood glucose levels to maintain homeostasis
glucagon - ✔✔increases blood glucose levels to maintain homeostasis
negative feedback - ✔✔feedback loops that works to return the state of the
organism back to the set point. Maintains homeostasis by counteracting
disruption. Self terminating
Positive feedback - ✔✔feedback loops that amplify the stimulus, output is
fed back into the system to increase output. These do not shut themselves
off, require outside factors
positive feedback - ✔✔Hormone control during childbirth, lactation, and
blood clotting are examples of this type of feedback
, ©JOSHCLAY 2024/2025. YEAR PUBLISHED 2024.
negative feedback - ✔✔glucose levels, heart rate, etc. are examples of this
type of feedback
phospholipid bilayer - ✔✔composed of hydrophobic tails and heads; fluid
mosaic; forms the plasma membrane. Serves as a physical barrier,
gateway for exchange, communication, and attachment site
passive transport - ✔✔transport that requires no extra energy; movement
occurs randomly from areas of high concentration to low concentration
active transport - ✔✔transport that requires energy typically in the form of
ATP; molecules are moved from areas of low concentration to high
concentration, AGAINST concentration gradient
simple diffusion - ✔✔random motion of molecules in solution that results in
spread of molecules from areas of high concentration to low concentration.
Net movement until the concentrations are equal. Can occur in open
system or across partition (plasma membrane)
flux - ✔✔how much does a concentration drop over a distance; overall flow
Fick's Law - ✔✔describes the movement of molecules in 1 dimension. The
overall flow is the negative of the product of the diffusion coefficient and
concentration gradient
