PSY 110 EXAM 1 Midterm Questions and Terms

Reasons offered in support of a claim are referred to as - evidence. Personal experiences, research studies, and statements by experts or authorities are all examples of - information that can be used as evidence Haley said, "Lots of studies support the dual process theory of thinking." Dana replied, "Thinking is thinking. I don't believe there is more than one type of thinking. Anyway, dual process theory is just a theory." Dana does NOT realize that: - some theories are better than others because they are supported by more studies. The idea of critical thinking as reflectively thinking about one's own thinking is MOST related to - metacognition Open-mindedness, fair-mindedness, and a skeptical attitude are examples of - critical thinking dispositions. Lola said, "Scientists have not been able to prove that intelligence design theory is not true, so it is probably correct." Lola is showing the thinking error of - arguing from ignorance or possibility. Consider this statement: "Charles Darwin hypothesized that humans and dogs have evolved similar emotional expressions on the face, as in human and canine displays of anger. He based this hypothesis on observations that anger expressions in humans involve a pulling back of the lips to reveal the teeth, similar to the way dogs show their canine teeth in aggressive displays." The presentation of _____ make(s) this a basic argument. - observations as evidence supporting the hypothesis 8. Kei was talking to her parents about her decision of what to do after college. She said, "I have decided to go to graduate school in counseling psychology because it is the occupation that interests me the most and is prestigious." Did Kei make a basic argument? - Yes, she provided a conclusion with evidence related to interest and prestige. "In 1963, the psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted an important experiment showing that participants were willing to administer high voltage shocks to other people in the study. This could explain why people such as the Nazis in World War II were willing to hurt other people in obedience to authority." Has a basic argument been made? - Yes, because an experiment is offered as evidence to support a claim. Sharise said: "Research shows that a nerve cell can fire up to about 1,000 times per second. Consequently, the brain has an upper limit on its speed of processing." Sharise presented a basic argument because she included: - a claim with evidence. The general term in the text that refers to mistakes in judgment and reasoning is: - thinking errors Anise usually has a good appetite, but she now eats less and sometimes skips breakfast. Her roommate draws the conclusion that Anise is probably on a diet. This is an example of a(n): - inference. When reasoning proceeds from a general rule or principle to a specific case, it is BEST described as: - deductive reasoning Deductive reasoning is commonly used in science to: - make predictions from theories. A deductive argument expressed in "if-then" form is a(n) _____ argument. - conditional If a scientist studies the changes in organisms over long periods of time due to natural selection, then that scientist is taking an evolutionary approach. Dr. Steven Pinker has studied long-term changes in humans, especially the changes in their behaviors and mental processes. Therefore, Dr. Pinker has taken an evolutionary approach. The argument is sound because: - the antecedent has been asserted. An unwarranted assumption is: - a premise lacking support that is taken for granted and might lead to a different conclusion. The stereotypes that people apply to other individuals often: - Are unwarranted assumptions made about the individuals and their groups. Some creationists have argued that because evolutionary biologists and other scientists have not shown that the universe started with the act of some intelligent designer, people should conclude that the universe started the way the creationists have proposed. Which thinking error(s) is being committed in this argument? - Shifting the burden of proof and arguing from possibility When experiments compare Bandura's social learning theory of aggression and Lorenz's drive theory of aggression, the results: - typically support social learning theory. Consistent with the predictions of social learning theory, people who _____ tend to increase the frequency of aggressive behaviors. - observe another person behaving aggressively A car salesman said to a customer, "This is the best car our company has ever made. We stand behind this car 100%." The customer then asked, "How do you know that it is so good?" The salesman replied, "I've seen a lot of cars over the years, and this one is the best." The salesman shows the error of _____ in his form of reasoning or argumentation. - circular reasoning The cognitive theory of depression proposes that if people have negative thoughts and beliefs about themselves, then they are more likely to experience depression. Paula believes that she is a failure and not worthy of success. Therefore, she is likely to become depressed. Assuming the premises are true, is this a basic argument with a sound conclusion? - Yes, it is a deductive argument, making a valid prediction about Paula's condition. If someone scientifically studies behavior and mental processes, then that person is taking a psychological approach. Katya scientifically studies behavior and mental processes, so she is taking a psychological approach. Is this a valid deductive argument? - Yes, because it involves asserting the antecedent. The paranormal claims of parapsychology about ESP do not seem reasonable given what is known in physics about the transmission of energy and what is known in psychology about perception. Consequently, these claims: - seem implausible. Which kind of reasoning is used the most by scientists to justify their theories? - Inductive reasoning A plausible claim is MOST related to judging that claim by - how reasonable a claim seems, given what is known. Inductive reasoning is often described as proceeding from: - specific cases to a general rule or principle. Miya and Zach were discussing whether coffee improves concentration. Miya told Zach that caffeine did help because a friend of hers usually had trouble concentrating during tests, but one time when her friend drank coffee before taking a test, the friend had no trouble concentrating—and even scored an A on the exam. Which kind of evidence is Miya using? - An anecdote Lauren was talking to a classmate about emergency situations in which a person needs help right away. She said that everyone knows that a person is better off if there are a lot of people around to help because there is strength in numbers. From this, she concluded that if someone is in trouble, that person is much more likely to be helped when there is a crowd around than if there is just one other person available to help. Which kind of evidence is Lauren using? - Commonsense belief based on a psychological misconception After finding out that Julie had been cheating on him, Malik said he couldn't forgive Julie for her infidelity. Joey, Malik's best friend, said, "I couldn't forgive her either. Maybe you should break up with her." Malik said, "I think you're right, Joey. I've always been able to trust your judgment about women. I'm going to tell Julie I want to break up, tomorrow." Which is true about these statements? - Malik is treating Joey's judgment as a statement of authority in making his decision to break up with Julie. A critical difference between science and nonscience is that science relies on: - carefully made observations. Steve went to an astrologer, who predicted he would have a business success in the near future. The next day, Steve was offered a promotion at work. Caitlin said that she knew of a well-controlled study that tested the predictions of astrologers and found they could not predict future events at better than chance levels. Which evidence should people trust MOST in drawing a conclusion about astrology? - The scientific study, because it is based on more objective, systematic observations that can be replicated. Most of the high-quality evidence from the literature review in the textbook supports the conclusion that critical thinking (CT) can be taught, especially when explicit CT instruction is employed. What is the MOST appropriate conclusion that can be drawn from this statement? - It can be tentatively concluded that explicit CT instruction is effective in helping students improve their CT. Which of the following thinking errors results from going past the data or exaggerating what a study has found to say so that the research implies more than the data support? - Sweeping generalization Which statement is TRUE about science as a method of inquiry? - Science combines systematic observation and rules for effective reasoning. Psychological science takes an empirical approach, which means it relies on: - making verifiable observations. A(n) _____ is the predicted relationship between two or more variables. - hypothesis Suppose that a clinical researcher measured individuals' scores first on an inventory of their current state of anxiety and then separately on a measure of their current state of depression. The researcher found that as anxiety scores increased, depression scores also tended to increase. This relationship is an example of a: - positive correlation. Predictions made by scientific hypotheses can be proved false, which means that scientific knowledge allows for _______ in science. - self-correction As Kevin took his exam, he looked over each true/false question and thought about how confusing the test was for him. After a while, he seemed to observe a pattern: Every time a question confused him, the answer seemed to be false. Kevin was surprised when he got his test back and found that an equal number of confusing items were true and false. Which of the following thinking errors was involved in Kevin's perceived pattern of true/false answers? - Illusory correlation Darya looks at evidence and decides that the phase of the moon is associated with abnormal behavior, even though she has found a relationship that does not exist between the two variables. This situation MOST likely demonstrates the thinking error of: - illusory correlation.