GEG111 Final Exam Review

Define Geography - Study of Earth's physical features, inhabitants, and their spatial relationships/interactions Subfields of geographic study - Physical(landforms, water, soil, and animals) and Human(culture, economic and political) The Primary Steps of the Scientific Method - Observation, Hypothesis, Experimentation, Peer view, and Conclusion 4 primary environmental spheres - Atmosphere(air), Lithosphere(stone), Hydrosphere(water), and Biosphere(life) Latitude (parallels) - Lines go east-west and measure angular displace from the Equator Longitude (meridians) - Lines go north-south and measure angular displace from the Prime Meridian Map scale - Relationship between the length measured on the map and actual distance on earth Map projection - 2D representation of earths 3D surface 3 map projections classes - Cylindrical(Accurate shapes but inaccurate sizes), Planar(Displays one hemisphere well), and Conic(Displays small areas well) Longitude and standard time - It is the time along the Prime Meridian (0°) of longitude Distinguish between GPS, GIS, and Remote Sensing - GPS(relies on satellites in orbit), GIS(relies on software and databases with data of separate layers), and Remote sensing(relies on aircraft, spacecraft , and ground sensors) Solar System Formation - Formed from a large spinning cloud of dust and gas Annual March of the Seasons - March Equinox(03/21), June Solstice(06/21), September Equinox(09/21), and December Solstice(12/21) Season cause on Earth's orientation - Change of its rotational axis Insolation by latitude - Differences in the angle at which solar rays meet the surface at each latitude result in the uneven distribution of insolation, Solar insolation is strongest near the equator and weakest near the poles, and Seasonal changes in day length vary by latitude Changing declination of the sun and subsolar point - Latitude of the subsolar point that migrates between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn Solstices, Equinoxes and the subsolar point - Solstices-Declination of sun at 23.5 Equinoxes-Declination of sun at the equator Atmospheric Composition - 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% Trace Gases(including carbon dioxide, water vapor...) Athmospheric Structure - Troposphere(weather occurs), Stratosphere(O3 absorbs solar radiation), Mesosphere(Coldest Temperatures), and Thermosphere(Highest Temperatures) Anthropogenic Atmospheric Pollution - Burning fossil fuel and deforestation Natural factors that affect pollutants - Forest fires and volcanoes Insolation - Incoming solar radiation Energy scattering - Reflection and redirection of isolation by gas, water, and ice Energy refraction - Change in the direction and speed of energy when entering a different medium Albedo - Ratio of light that a surface reflects compared to the total sunlight that hits it Energy absorption - Molecules absorb radiation Conduction - Molecule to molecular transfer of heart(Touching) Convection - Transfer of heat by circulation(Boiling) Advenction - Horizontal convection Greenhouse effect - Emission of radiation that gets trapped by Co2 gases in the atmosphere and increase temperatures Controls of temperature Latitude - Angle at which solar energy hits the Earth Controls of temperature Altitude - Temperatures decrease with increasing altitude Land-water heating differences - Transparency:Land(Light energy cannot penetrate) Water(Light energy can pass through it) Movement:Land(Stationary so energy cannot distribute) Water(Active so energy can distribute) Specific heat:higher for water than land Ocean currents - Warm water moves poleward and cool water moves towards equator Temperature patterns by hemisphere - Northern hemisphere-Dominated by continental effects (greater temperature ranges) Southern hemisphere- Dominated by maritime effects (smaller temperature ranges and less seasonal variation) Equatorial-Hot all year long Isotherm - Line drawn on a weather map that connects points having equal temperature Cyclones vs. Anti Cyclones - Cyclones-Low pressure centers, convergence, and rising air Anticyclone-High pressure centers, divergence, and sinking air Primary pressure areas and associated winds - ITCZ(low pressure-trade winds), Subtropics(high pressure-trade winds/westerly wind), subpolar(low pressurewesterly winds/polar easterlies), polar(high pressure-polar easterlies) Land breezes - Blows from land to sea Sea breezes - Blows from sea to land Mountain breezes - Blows from mountain to valley Valley breezes - Blows from valley to mountain Monsoons - Reversal of winds from land to sea in tropics Chinook winds - Warm winds that flow down leeward side of mountains Great Pacific Garbage Patch - Area of trash that is located in the North pacific Gyre Characteristics of El Niño - Upwelling off the west coast of South America declines during the warm phase Properties of water - Cohesion, can climb up narrow openings, high boiling temperature, and absorbs/releases energy when changes states Relative Humidity - The ratio of the moisture content of the air to the maximum possible moisture content at the same temperature Stable vs. Unstable air parcels - Stable-Resists upward movement Unstable-Continues to rise until reaching an altitude of equal density/temperature Windward vs. Leeward - Windward-Air is forced up and adiabatic cooling happens Leeward-Air flows down and adiabatic warming happens Adiabatic Process(cooling/heating) - Processes-Results from a change in presses without exchange of heat with surroundings Cooling-Cooling of a parcel of air with rising altitude Warming-Warming of parcel of air with decreasing altititude Lifting Condensation Level (LCL) - The altitude at which a parcel of air cools to the dew point temperature allowing condensation to begin Convergent lifting - Air flowing from opposite directions into low pressure zone leading to upwards air displacement Convectional lifting - Surface heating causes lifting and convection in an air mass Orographic lifting - Air is forced up the side of a mountain leading to cooling Front lifting(Cold/Warm) - lifting(Cold/Warm) Cold-Advancing cold air uplifts warm air leading to cooling Warm-Advancing warm air rides over cold air Occluded front - Faster moving cold front begins uplifting the warmer air mass along the warm front Stationary front - Warm air mass and a cold air mass meet and no movement occurs Types of fog - Radiation, Advection, Upslope, Evaporation Radiation fog - Radiative cooling of a surface chills the air above it to dew-point temperature Advection fog - Air from one place migrates to another where conditions are right for saturation Upslope fog - Moist air blows up mountain slope and becomes saturated Evaporation fog - Cold air lies over a warm body of water causing water to evaporate Air masses over North America(positions, and interactions) - Continental polar- North hemisphere and creates cold surface conditions Maritime polar-Northern Pacific/Atlantic and contains moist/unstable conditions Maritime tropical-Gulf/Atlantic/Pacific and creates two humid air masses Midlatitude cyclone stages - Cyclogenesis-Cold and warm air converge along the polar front Open stage-Air advance along fronts. In north cold air advances south and warm air is pulled north Occluded-Faster moving cold air uplifts warmer air along warm front Dissolving-Cyclone dissolves when cold air completely uplifts warm air Thunderstorm(cloud type) - Cumulonimbus cloud Tornadoes(geography and measurement scale) - Geography- Most common along the great plains Measurement scale-enhanced fujita scale Hurricanes(geography,source of energy,names) - Geography-Over oceans and along coasts Source of energy-Heat energy from water Names-Created by World Meteorological Organization and alternate between male and female names Hydrologic cycle - Atmosphere-Evaporation brings up water and precipitation releases water to surface Surface-Water will either flow overland or soak into soil Subsurface-Water moves downward into soil Largest freshwater lake - Lake Baikal, Russia Aral sea disaster - In 1960s the Soviet Union diverted 2 rivers to irrigate the desert which led to 90% volume loss Groundwater mining(US aquifer impact) - Water is pumped from a well and has caused a drop in water table of more than 100 feet Weather vs. Climate - Weather-Condition of the atmosphere at any particular time and place Climate-Average weather conditions for an area over a long period of time Components of empirical climate classification - Precipitation and temperature Tropical Characteristics - Tropical latitudes and winterless Mesothermal Characteristics - Midlatitudes and mild winter Microthermal Characteristics - MIdlatitudes/High latitudes and cold winters Polar Characteristics - High latitudes and cold Dry Characteristics - Permanent moisture deficits at all latitudes Anthropogenic sources of CO2 - Burning fossil fuels and deforestation Historical vs Current patterns of atmospheric concentration - Historical- Atmospheric concentrations were due to natural factors Current-Atmospheric concentrations due to anthropogenic sources Milankovitch cycles - Periodic changes in Earth's rotation and orbit around the sun Global temperature trends since the 1880s - Steady trends up until the industrial revolution Evidence for present climate change - Increased temperatures,ice melting,increased sea level,extreme events,increased water vapor Hierarchy of the major time segments of the geologic time scale - Eon, era, period epoch order Geomorphology - Study of Earth's surface landforms-Origin, evolution, form , and spatial distribution Layers of Earth's interior - Oceanic/Continental crust, Uppermost mantle(rigid), asthenosphere(plastic), lower mantle(liquid), and core(solid) Rock vs. Mineral - Rock-Collection of mineral(s) that form a mass Mineral-Inorganic and natural solid compound which a specific chemical formula Rock cycle (primary rock types and formation processes) - Igneous-Formed from molten material Sedimentary-Formed from compaction/ chemical processes Metamorphic-Formed by altered heat and pressure Endogenic vs. Exogenic processes - Endogenic-Operate from Earth's interior, driven by heat and radioactive decay Exogenic-Operate at Earth's surface, driven by solar energy and the movement of air, water, and ice