SPEA-V 185 Exam 2 Questions And Answers Rated 100% Correct!!

Punctuated equilibrium - ️️Happens when attention of key decision makers becomes focused on a single issue or problem Generally happens when an issue hits a breaking point and attention shifts and becomes proportionately focused Some issues can't be solved incrementally what does it mean to be a rational actor? - ️️You are able to rank, order your preferences based on the expected utility of each option. These rank ordered preferences are stable and transitive. Having perfect information about all alternative possibilities. Maximize your utility Aspects of incrementalism - ️️- Less work in looking at other kinds of decisions - Less risk - Consistent with principles of bounded rationality - Politically expedient -not expedient in situations where change is needed quickly -does not answer the call to mass movements effectively rational decision making - ️️Traditional economic theory that people are rational actors rational choice/public choice - ️️people act based on their self interest pure rationality - ️️requires person to have complete information and to process this information in a timely manner. Bounded rationality - ️️people do not have the capacity to be perfectly rational what are the two modes of thinking - ️️system 1 and system 2 System 1 - ️️the intuitive and emotionally based way that people react automatically. (thinking fast) (more common) (used the most) system 2 - ️️the deliberate, controlled, conscious, and slower way of thinking prospect theory - ️️people approach outcomes by assessing risk of the loss rather than possibility of the gainSatisfising - ️️rather than trying to make the best decision possible, people try and make a decision that is good enough. Decoy effects - ️️refer to situation where the selection can be influenced by including a clearly inferior version of one of the choices choice blindness - ️️people will come up with reasons after the fact to make it seem like their decision was based on some logical reason. People defending a choice even though it was not the choice they made. confirmation bias - ️️people not only seek out information that supports their existing opinion, but they also tend to ignore or discount information that challenges their belief. Incrementalism - ️️Policymaking characterize by a series of decisions each instituting modest change parallel processing - ️️Dealing with several decisions simultaneously Serial processing - ️️Dealing with 1 problem at a time (Humans can only engage in serial processing despite continued efforts to multitask) ONe important insight into group dynamics of decision-making - ️️Inherent need for humans to be liked and positively viewed by peers. Can be destructive in situations like peer pressure. Ashe Confirmatory Experiment - ️️People will make their decisions based on what their peers say Groupthink - ️️A situation in which group members seek unanimous agreement despite their individual doubts consequences of groupthink - ️️1. Fail to adequately determine objectives and alternatives 2. Adequately assessing the risks associated with group decisions 3. Failure to cycle through discarded alternatives to re-examine their worth after a majority of the group discarded the alternative 4. Select and use only information that supports their position and conclusions 5. Failure to make contingency plans in case decision and resulting actions fail ways to reduce groupthink - ️️1. Brainstorm before discussion 2. Leaders shouldn't express opinions early in the session 3. Invite outside experts4. Develop a 2nd solution 5. Have some play devil's advocate 6. Subgroups make different proposals (multiple advocacy) 7. Outside evaluation 8. Diversity in membership