Psychological Science (Seventh Edition) Book Summary H2
2.1 Science has 3 primary goals
1. Description
2. Prediction
3. Explanation
Prevalence= how often something occurs
Empirical research= a scientific process that involves the careful collection,
analysis and interpretation of data
- Data= measurements gathered during the research process
Scientific method= this procedure begins with the observation of a
phenomenon and the question of why that phenomenon occurred
Theory= an explanation or model of how a phenomenon works
- Should be falsifiable= it should be possible to test hypotheses that show
the theory is wrong
Hypothesis= a specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based
on
Theory hypothesis research
Occam’s razor/ law of parsimony= the simpler of 2 theories is generally
preferred
2.2 The scientific method is a systematic way to test hypotheses
7 steps that define the scientific method
1. Frame a research question Choose a specific research question
2. Conduct a literature review Search databases by keywords
3. Form a hypothesis Form the hypothesis
4. Design a Study Test your hypothesis by selecting an
appropriate research method
5. Conduct the study Recruit participants from your target
population and measure their
responses
6. Analyze the data Use statistical analyses to compare
, the responses of participants in the
different conditions
7. Report the results Report results and restart the research
process
Variable= something in the world that can vary and that the researcher can
manipulate (change), measure (evaluate), or both
Operational definition= a definition that qualifies and quantifies a variable so
the variable can be understood objectively
Peer review= a process by which other scientists with similar expertise evaluate
and critique research reports
2.3 The scientific method is cyclical
Replication= repeating a study to see if the results are the same (or similar)
- False positive= occurs when the hypothesis under investigation is false
but the study produces a seemingly trustworthy result by chance
Questionable research practices:
Small samples A larger sample is actually required to
achieve an accurate estimation of the
population effects
HARKing Hypothesizing after the results are
known (after-the-fact prediction)
p-hacking Running statistical tests over and over
with different variations until one of
them yields a statistically significant
(trustworthy) result
Underreporting null effects A null effect means finding no
difference between conditions or no
relationship between variables.
Underreporting can cause readers to
draw invalid inferences because entire
studies or hypothesis tests are missing
from the story
Preregistration= when researchers lay out their hypotheses, methods and
analysis plan ahead of time and publish it on a time-stamped website
- Power analysis= helps researchers determine whether their sample size
is sufficiently large to detect an effect that would be meaningful
Meta-analysis= the type of study that is an analysis of multiple analyses
2.4 Critical thinking is essential to evaluating scientific findings
2.1 Science has 3 primary goals
1. Description
2. Prediction
3. Explanation
Prevalence= how often something occurs
Empirical research= a scientific process that involves the careful collection,
analysis and interpretation of data
- Data= measurements gathered during the research process
Scientific method= this procedure begins with the observation of a
phenomenon and the question of why that phenomenon occurred
Theory= an explanation or model of how a phenomenon works
- Should be falsifiable= it should be possible to test hypotheses that show
the theory is wrong
Hypothesis= a specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based
on
Theory hypothesis research
Occam’s razor/ law of parsimony= the simpler of 2 theories is generally
preferred
2.2 The scientific method is a systematic way to test hypotheses
7 steps that define the scientific method
1. Frame a research question Choose a specific research question
2. Conduct a literature review Search databases by keywords
3. Form a hypothesis Form the hypothesis
4. Design a Study Test your hypothesis by selecting an
appropriate research method
5. Conduct the study Recruit participants from your target
population and measure their
responses
6. Analyze the data Use statistical analyses to compare
, the responses of participants in the
different conditions
7. Report the results Report results and restart the research
process
Variable= something in the world that can vary and that the researcher can
manipulate (change), measure (evaluate), or both
Operational definition= a definition that qualifies and quantifies a variable so
the variable can be understood objectively
Peer review= a process by which other scientists with similar expertise evaluate
and critique research reports
2.3 The scientific method is cyclical
Replication= repeating a study to see if the results are the same (or similar)
- False positive= occurs when the hypothesis under investigation is false
but the study produces a seemingly trustworthy result by chance
Questionable research practices:
Small samples A larger sample is actually required to
achieve an accurate estimation of the
population effects
HARKing Hypothesizing after the results are
known (after-the-fact prediction)
p-hacking Running statistical tests over and over
with different variations until one of
them yields a statistically significant
(trustworthy) result
Underreporting null effects A null effect means finding no
difference between conditions or no
relationship between variables.
Underreporting can cause readers to
draw invalid inferences because entire
studies or hypothesis tests are missing
from the story
Preregistration= when researchers lay out their hypotheses, methods and
analysis plan ahead of time and publish it on a time-stamped website
- Power analysis= helps researchers determine whether their sample size
is sufficiently large to detect an effect that would be meaningful
Meta-analysis= the type of study that is an analysis of multiple analyses
2.4 Critical thinking is essential to evaluating scientific findings
