PROBLEM 1: PHILOSOPHY OF MIND
LEARNING GOALS
What are the different perspectives of the philosophers on mind and knowledge?
PLATO (ca. 427-347 B.C.)
Plato wished to find something permanent that could be object of knowledge, but his search carried him far
beyond the essence Socrates had settled
First period of writing: reported thoughts and methods of his teacher Socrates
Second period: founded the Academy and combined the Socratic method with mystical Pythagorean
philosophy (mathematical tradition)
He was a nativist (the truth and knowledge are innate), rationalist (stressed mental operations as means of
arriving at the truth), idealist (reality consisted of ideas and Forms) & dualist
THEORY OF FORMS OR IDEAS
Form: aspect of reality that is permanent and therefore knowable
o Socrates: definition specifies object/concept’s essence
o Plato: essence = Form
o Both agree knowledge could be attained only through reason
For Plato, there were two worlds: World of Knowledge contains Forms or ideas (universals known only
trough reason) & World of Opinion consists of the changing particulars of the material world conveyed by
our senses (which are inaccurate, so body hinders us in acquiring knowledge of the Forms)
Everything in the empirical world is an inferior manifestation or copy of a pure Form/idea that exists in
abstract ex cat is inferior copy of abstract idea of “catness”
Interaction of pure Form with matter is experienced through the senses matter is constantly changing, so
interaction is less perfect than pure idea before interaction
Form has existence separate from its individual manifestations
Anamnesis: recollection of information we already possess, to learn to understand and appreciate the
perfect Forms
ANOLOGY OF DIVIDED LINE
Those attempting to gain knowledge by examining empirical world via sensory experience are doomed to
ignorance/opinion
True knowledge involves grasping Forms themselves, done only by rational thought
Imagining: lowest Form of understanding because based on images
Beliefs do not constitute knowledge
Mathematical knowledge: not highest type of knowledge because it is applied to the solution of
practical/empirical problems and many of its relationships exist only by definition
1
, “Form of the good”: highest Form of wisdom and truth because includes all other Forms and shows their
interrelatedness, makes all other Forms knowable (In Christian theology, equated with God)
o Embracing Forms themselves: true knowledge results only from understanding of abstract Forms
ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE
Fictitious prisoners living their entire lives in a cave, fire projects shadows that are confused with reality
(images in analogy dived line)
Prisoner escapes and sees real objects (Forms) responsible for shadows and objects in the cave (sensory
information=unreliable) can return to world of shadows or adjust (understanding empirical events in
divided line)
Comes back to cave and embraces true knowledge to other prisoners purpose of education
Bound prisoners=humans that confuse world of sense experience with reality
Prisoner that escapes=individual governed by reason rather than sensory impressions
It is an analogy for the interaction of the world of knowledge with the world of opinion
REMINISCENCE THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE (how come to know the Forms?)
Only way to arrive at true knowledge is to ignore sensory experience and focus on contents of the mind
All knowledge is innate and can be attained only through introspection: searching of one’s inner experiences
Sensory experience can only remind what was already known
Knowledge comes from reminiscence: remembering experiences the soul had before entering the body
NATURE OF THE SOUL
Plato introduced the three-part soul (different component dominates in each individual)
o Immortal rational component
o Two irrational components (part of the body=mortal)
The courageous/spirit: emotions like fear, love and anger
The appetitive: needs like hunger, thirst and sex that must be met and play motivational
role in everyday life
Components almost always in state of conflict (like Freud’s ego and id)
Bodily stimulation enables irrational part of soul to overcome rational part, because leads to search for
pleasure and exaggerate drives
To attain true knowledge, person must suppress needs of the body and concentrate on rational pursuits, like
introspection
Person is not impulsive if rational soul dominates, guided by moral principles and future goals not immediate
satisfaction of biological/emotional needs
Virtue of wisdom is attained when reason component keeps spirit and appetites in check, and virtue of justice
(achievement of inner harmony) when all parts of the soul perform their function
According to Plato, the supreme goal in life is to free the soul as much as possible from the adulterations of
the flesh
Utopian society: each type of individual has a special function, which is determined by matter of inheritance
2
, o Dominant appetitive = workers and slaves
o Dominant courage/emotion = soldiers
o Dominant rational = philosopher-kings
PLATO’S LEGACY
Did little to promote science and much to inhibit it because depends on empirical observation
Fundamental rules of logical reasoning
Distinguish mere opinion and true knowledge
Differentiate words from the objects they represent
Forms = contemporary term concept to refer something abstracted from physical reality
Created dualism that divided the human into body (material and imperfect) and a mind/soul (contained pure
knowledge)
Immortal rational soul
ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)
One of Plato’s most brilliant students and founded the world’s first university (Lyceum)
First philosopher to extensively treat many topics that became part of psychology (memory, sensation,
dreams, geriatrics and learning) but also contributed to every branch of knowledge, with the possible
exception of math
Writings divided into 27 non-surviving dialogues and treatise based on Aristotle’s lecture notes
He embraced rationalism (mind must be employed before knowledge can be attained) and empiricism (object
of rational thought is information furnished by the senses) =both mental and sensory experiences -but was
more of a rationalist
He was also a nativist and determinist
DIFFERENCE WITH PLATO
ARISTOTLE PLATO
Essences, first principles or Attained by examining nature directly, Arrived at by pure thought and
universals concepts derive from sense experience when ignoring sensory
experiences
Knowledge & nature Inseparable Independent
Body Not an obstacle Obstacle in search of knowledge
Mathematics Useless, emphasis on observation and Important
classification of nature
Followed philosophy Hippocratic, biological tradition Pythagorean, mathematical
Inductive reasoning (specific to general) tradition
Deductive reasoning (syllogism)
CAUSATION AND TELEOLOGY (to understand anything)
1. Material cause: (of what is a thing made?) kind of matter object is made ex statue made of marble
2. Formal cause: (what is it?) particular form or pattern of object ex piece of marble takes form of Venus
3. Efficient cause: (by whom/what is the object made?) force that transforms matter into certain form ex
energy of sculptor
4. Final cause: (essence) purpose for which object exists which is part of their nature, precedes the other causes
ex purpose of acorn is to become oak tree not a frog
Teleology: everything in nature exists for a purpose, nature itself has purpose
o With conscious intention (not intended by Aristotle)
o Or Entelechy: built-in function that keeps object developing in prescribed direction until its full
potential is reached ex eye develops until provides vision (purpose)
3
LEARNING GOALS
What are the different perspectives of the philosophers on mind and knowledge?
PLATO (ca. 427-347 B.C.)
Plato wished to find something permanent that could be object of knowledge, but his search carried him far
beyond the essence Socrates had settled
First period of writing: reported thoughts and methods of his teacher Socrates
Second period: founded the Academy and combined the Socratic method with mystical Pythagorean
philosophy (mathematical tradition)
He was a nativist (the truth and knowledge are innate), rationalist (stressed mental operations as means of
arriving at the truth), idealist (reality consisted of ideas and Forms) & dualist
THEORY OF FORMS OR IDEAS
Form: aspect of reality that is permanent and therefore knowable
o Socrates: definition specifies object/concept’s essence
o Plato: essence = Form
o Both agree knowledge could be attained only through reason
For Plato, there were two worlds: World of Knowledge contains Forms or ideas (universals known only
trough reason) & World of Opinion consists of the changing particulars of the material world conveyed by
our senses (which are inaccurate, so body hinders us in acquiring knowledge of the Forms)
Everything in the empirical world is an inferior manifestation or copy of a pure Form/idea that exists in
abstract ex cat is inferior copy of abstract idea of “catness”
Interaction of pure Form with matter is experienced through the senses matter is constantly changing, so
interaction is less perfect than pure idea before interaction
Form has existence separate from its individual manifestations
Anamnesis: recollection of information we already possess, to learn to understand and appreciate the
perfect Forms
ANOLOGY OF DIVIDED LINE
Those attempting to gain knowledge by examining empirical world via sensory experience are doomed to
ignorance/opinion
True knowledge involves grasping Forms themselves, done only by rational thought
Imagining: lowest Form of understanding because based on images
Beliefs do not constitute knowledge
Mathematical knowledge: not highest type of knowledge because it is applied to the solution of
practical/empirical problems and many of its relationships exist only by definition
1
, “Form of the good”: highest Form of wisdom and truth because includes all other Forms and shows their
interrelatedness, makes all other Forms knowable (In Christian theology, equated with God)
o Embracing Forms themselves: true knowledge results only from understanding of abstract Forms
ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE
Fictitious prisoners living their entire lives in a cave, fire projects shadows that are confused with reality
(images in analogy dived line)
Prisoner escapes and sees real objects (Forms) responsible for shadows and objects in the cave (sensory
information=unreliable) can return to world of shadows or adjust (understanding empirical events in
divided line)
Comes back to cave and embraces true knowledge to other prisoners purpose of education
Bound prisoners=humans that confuse world of sense experience with reality
Prisoner that escapes=individual governed by reason rather than sensory impressions
It is an analogy for the interaction of the world of knowledge with the world of opinion
REMINISCENCE THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE (how come to know the Forms?)
Only way to arrive at true knowledge is to ignore sensory experience and focus on contents of the mind
All knowledge is innate and can be attained only through introspection: searching of one’s inner experiences
Sensory experience can only remind what was already known
Knowledge comes from reminiscence: remembering experiences the soul had before entering the body
NATURE OF THE SOUL
Plato introduced the three-part soul (different component dominates in each individual)
o Immortal rational component
o Two irrational components (part of the body=mortal)
The courageous/spirit: emotions like fear, love and anger
The appetitive: needs like hunger, thirst and sex that must be met and play motivational
role in everyday life
Components almost always in state of conflict (like Freud’s ego and id)
Bodily stimulation enables irrational part of soul to overcome rational part, because leads to search for
pleasure and exaggerate drives
To attain true knowledge, person must suppress needs of the body and concentrate on rational pursuits, like
introspection
Person is not impulsive if rational soul dominates, guided by moral principles and future goals not immediate
satisfaction of biological/emotional needs
Virtue of wisdom is attained when reason component keeps spirit and appetites in check, and virtue of justice
(achievement of inner harmony) when all parts of the soul perform their function
According to Plato, the supreme goal in life is to free the soul as much as possible from the adulterations of
the flesh
Utopian society: each type of individual has a special function, which is determined by matter of inheritance
2
, o Dominant appetitive = workers and slaves
o Dominant courage/emotion = soldiers
o Dominant rational = philosopher-kings
PLATO’S LEGACY
Did little to promote science and much to inhibit it because depends on empirical observation
Fundamental rules of logical reasoning
Distinguish mere opinion and true knowledge
Differentiate words from the objects they represent
Forms = contemporary term concept to refer something abstracted from physical reality
Created dualism that divided the human into body (material and imperfect) and a mind/soul (contained pure
knowledge)
Immortal rational soul
ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)
One of Plato’s most brilliant students and founded the world’s first university (Lyceum)
First philosopher to extensively treat many topics that became part of psychology (memory, sensation,
dreams, geriatrics and learning) but also contributed to every branch of knowledge, with the possible
exception of math
Writings divided into 27 non-surviving dialogues and treatise based on Aristotle’s lecture notes
He embraced rationalism (mind must be employed before knowledge can be attained) and empiricism (object
of rational thought is information furnished by the senses) =both mental and sensory experiences -but was
more of a rationalist
He was also a nativist and determinist
DIFFERENCE WITH PLATO
ARISTOTLE PLATO
Essences, first principles or Attained by examining nature directly, Arrived at by pure thought and
universals concepts derive from sense experience when ignoring sensory
experiences
Knowledge & nature Inseparable Independent
Body Not an obstacle Obstacle in search of knowledge
Mathematics Useless, emphasis on observation and Important
classification of nature
Followed philosophy Hippocratic, biological tradition Pythagorean, mathematical
Inductive reasoning (specific to general) tradition
Deductive reasoning (syllogism)
CAUSATION AND TELEOLOGY (to understand anything)
1. Material cause: (of what is a thing made?) kind of matter object is made ex statue made of marble
2. Formal cause: (what is it?) particular form or pattern of object ex piece of marble takes form of Venus
3. Efficient cause: (by whom/what is the object made?) force that transforms matter into certain form ex
energy of sculptor
4. Final cause: (essence) purpose for which object exists which is part of their nature, precedes the other causes
ex purpose of acorn is to become oak tree not a frog
Teleology: everything in nature exists for a purpose, nature itself has purpose
o With conscious intention (not intended by Aristotle)
o Or Entelechy: built-in function that keeps object developing in prescribed direction until its full
potential is reached ex eye develops until provides vision (purpose)
3
