Page 1: Introduction and Cellular Biology
1. Introduction to Biology
• What is Biology?: The study of life and living organisms.
• Scientific Method: Steps include observation, hypothesis, experiment, analysis,
and conclusion.
2. Cell Structure and Function
• Cell Theory: All living organisms are composed of cells.
• Cell Types:
o Prokaryotic: Simple, no nucleus (e.g., bacteria).
o Eukaryotic: Complex, with a nucleus (e.g., plant and animal cells).
• Organelles:
o Nucleus: Control center.
o Mitochondria: Powerhouse, ATP production.
o Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
o Endoplasmic Reticulum: Transport (smooth and rough).
o Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.
o Lysosomes: Waste disposal.
o Chloroplasts (plants): Photosynthesis.
Page 2: Cell Cycle and Division
1. The Cell Cycle
• Phases:
o Interphase: G1 (growth), S (DNA replication), G2 (preparation for mitosis).
o Mitosis: Division of the nucleus.
▪ Prophase: Chromatin condenses, spindle fibers form.
▪ Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the equator.
, ▪ Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate.
▪ Telophase: Nuclear membranes reform.
o Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm.
2. Meiosis
• Purpose: Produces gametes (sperm and egg cells).
• Stages: Two rounds of division (Meiosis I and II).
o Crossing Over: Genetic recombination in Prophase I.
o Reduction Division: Chromosome number halved.
Page 3: Molecular Genetics
1. DNA Structure and Function
• DNA Composition: Double helix, nucleotide structure (sugar, phosphate, nitrogen
base).
• Base Pairing Rules: A-T (Adenine-Thymine), C-G (Cytosine-Guanine).
• DNA Replication: Semi-conservative model, enzymes involved (e.g., DNA
polymerase).
2. Gene Expression
• Transcription: DNA to mRNA in the nucleus.
• Translation: mRNA to protein in the ribosome.
• Genetic Code: Codons and amino acids.
3. Mutations
• Types: Point mutations (substitution, insertion, deletion), chromosomal mutations.
• Effects: Silent, missense, nonsense, frameshift.
Page 4: Heredity and Mendelian Genetics
1. Mendel’s Laws
• Law of Segregation: Alleles separate during gamete formation.
1. Introduction to Biology
• What is Biology?: The study of life and living organisms.
• Scientific Method: Steps include observation, hypothesis, experiment, analysis,
and conclusion.
2. Cell Structure and Function
• Cell Theory: All living organisms are composed of cells.
• Cell Types:
o Prokaryotic: Simple, no nucleus (e.g., bacteria).
o Eukaryotic: Complex, with a nucleus (e.g., plant and animal cells).
• Organelles:
o Nucleus: Control center.
o Mitochondria: Powerhouse, ATP production.
o Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
o Endoplasmic Reticulum: Transport (smooth and rough).
o Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.
o Lysosomes: Waste disposal.
o Chloroplasts (plants): Photosynthesis.
Page 2: Cell Cycle and Division
1. The Cell Cycle
• Phases:
o Interphase: G1 (growth), S (DNA replication), G2 (preparation for mitosis).
o Mitosis: Division of the nucleus.
▪ Prophase: Chromatin condenses, spindle fibers form.
▪ Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the equator.
, ▪ Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate.
▪ Telophase: Nuclear membranes reform.
o Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm.
2. Meiosis
• Purpose: Produces gametes (sperm and egg cells).
• Stages: Two rounds of division (Meiosis I and II).
o Crossing Over: Genetic recombination in Prophase I.
o Reduction Division: Chromosome number halved.
Page 3: Molecular Genetics
1. DNA Structure and Function
• DNA Composition: Double helix, nucleotide structure (sugar, phosphate, nitrogen
base).
• Base Pairing Rules: A-T (Adenine-Thymine), C-G (Cytosine-Guanine).
• DNA Replication: Semi-conservative model, enzymes involved (e.g., DNA
polymerase).
2. Gene Expression
• Transcription: DNA to mRNA in the nucleus.
• Translation: mRNA to protein in the ribosome.
• Genetic Code: Codons and amino acids.
3. Mutations
• Types: Point mutations (substitution, insertion, deletion), chromosomal mutations.
• Effects: Silent, missense, nonsense, frameshift.
Page 4: Heredity and Mendelian Genetics
1. Mendel’s Laws
• Law of Segregation: Alleles separate during gamete formation.
