Introduction to Psychology: Exam #1 Part #1 Terms in this set (66) Scientific method Defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it. For example, hunger might be defined as the number of hours of

Introduction to Psychology: Exam #1 Part #1 Terms in this set (66) Scientific method Defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it. For example, hunger might be defined as the number of hours of food deprivation. 1) Make observations 2) Define problem 3) Propose hypothesis 4) Gather evidence / Test hypothesis 5) Reject or retain hypothesis 6) Publish results What is a theory A theory is a system of ideas designed to relate/connect concepts and facts in a way that summarizes existing data and predicts future observations. Good theories summarize observations, explain them, allow prediction, and guide further research. Hypothesis A hypothesis is the predicted outcome of an experiment or an educated guess about the relationship between variables. In other words, a hypothesis is a testable hunch about behavior. Objectivity The tendency to base judgments and interpretations on external data rather than on subjective factors, such as personal feelings, beliefs, and experiences. Reactive and nonreactive measures A reactive measure alters the response under investigation. For example, if participants are aware of being observed, their reactions may be influenced more by the observer and the fact of being observed than by the stimulus object or situation to which they are seemingly responding. A nonreactive measure can to collect data without the researcher explicitly asking for it (and therefor overcome response problems, such as selective participation) Reliable and valid measures A reliable measure = the results you're getting from a test/experiment aren't varying (unless they are supposed to) / are providing consistent results. A valid measure is true and relevant. The test is measuring what is it supposed to be measuring. Introduction to Psychology: Exam #1 Part #1 Internal and external validity Internal validity = the accuracy with which a study can pinpoint one of various possible factors as the cause of a phenomenon. Potential confounds are controlled / experiment is controlled. Results = very accurate to this group, but we cannot know whether it is true for the greater population. Low external validity. External validity = the degree to which the study can be generalized beyond that study. (Less controlled factors = more external validity and less internal) Random assignment Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups. Placebo A placebo can be roughly defined as a sham medical treatment. This is used in experimentation to determine whether the expectation of the participant has an effect on the outcome. Double-blind control procedure An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. Operational definition (of something) Theoretical questions are transformed into testable hypotheses through operational definitions. An operational definition states the exact procedures used to measure a concept. Defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it. For example, hunger might be defined as the number of hours of food deprivation. Experiment vs. non-experiment An experiment requires intentional manipulation of the independent variable in order to observe its effect on the dependent variable. (Involves controls/managing confounds) A non-experimental study does not involve manipulation of variables or control, and relies more-so on observation and self-report. Independent vs. dependent variable(s) An independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable. A dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in a scientific experiment. Control In an experiment, the standard that is used for comparison with test results. Confound Factors that interfere with an accurate measurement between the independent and dependent variable. Central nervous system Brain and spinal cord. The brain interprets and stores information and sends orders to muscles, glands, and organs. The spinal cord is the pathway connecting the brain and the peripheral nervous system. Peripheral nervous system Transmits information to and from the central nervous system (NS). Autonomic nervous system Automatically regulates glands, internal organs, and blood vessels, pupil dilation, digestion, and blood pressure. Sympathetic division The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats. Introduction to Psychology: Exam #1 Part #1 Introduction to Psychology: Exam #1 Part #1 Cerebellum The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance. Motor projection area The motor area is located in the frontal lobe and is responsible for voluntary movements by sending signals to the muscles in the body. Sensory projection areas Any area of the cerebral cortex that receives input from sensory neurons, usually via the thalamus. There are specific areas for the different senses, and they are functionally differentiated into primary sensory areas and secondary sensory areas. Limbic system A loosely defined, widespread group of brain nuclei that innervate each other to form a network that is involved in autonomic and visceral processes and mechanisms of emotion, memory, and learning. It includes portions of the cerebral cortex (see limbic lobe), thalamus, and certain cortical and subcortical structures, such as the hippocampus, amygdala, and septal area. Hypothalamus A neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion Hippocampus A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. Amygdala A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression. Reticular formation A nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal Hemispheric lateralization Functional differences between left and right hemispheres. Each cerebral hemisphere performs certain functions that are not ordinarily performed by the opposite hemisphere Split-brain effects Since information cannot be directly shared between the two hemispheres, split-brain patients display unusual behaviors, particularly concerning speech and object recognition. For example: Objects presented in right visual field can be named while objects in left visual field Introduction to Psychology: Exam #1 Part #1 Glia Glia are the multi-purpose cells that connect and clean the neurons (nerve cells) to maintain the health of those neurons, The glia are also responsible for removing dead neurons and preventing dangerous and poisonous substances from reaching the brain. Neuron Neurons (also called neurones or nerve cells) are the fundamental units of the brain and nervous system, the cells responsible for receiving sensory input from the external world, for sending motor commands to our muscles, and for transforming and relaying the electrical signals at every step in between. Cell body The cell body, also called the soma, is the spherical part of the neuron that contains the nucleus. The cell body connects to the dendrites, which bring information to the neuron, and the axon, which sends information to other neurons. Dendrite The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. Axon A threadlike extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body. Reminder: you must be able to draw (and label) a neuron! Note: don't forget about gila! Semipermeable membrane A membrane that allows some molecules to pass through but does not allow other molecules to pass through. Synapse The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. Presynaptic cell PRE: the cell that sends the message. Presynaptic cell: at end of neuron, vesicles containing neurotransmitters are "dumped" into the synapse. Effect on postsynaptic cell depends on type of neurotransmitter expended: Inhibitory: decreases likelihood of postsynaptic cell firing Excitatory: increases likelihood of postsynaptic cell firing Postsynaptic cell POST: the cell that receives the message• Recieves the neurotransmitters (inhibitory or excitatory) dumped by the presynaptic cell into the synapse. Effect on postsynaptic cell depends on type of neurotransmitter expended: Inhibitory: decreases likelihood of postsynaptic cell firing Excitatory: increases likelihood of postsynaptic cell firing Resting potential The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane. (This is the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse) Action potential (be able to draw) The change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell. Threshold Level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse. A neural impulse is an electrochemical signal that is sent from neurons to other neurons, or to effectors, like muscles and glands that are controlled by neurons. Myelin A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next. (Myelin is produced by certain glial cells) Nodes of Ranvier Gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium channels are confined. They allow for ions to diffuse in and out of the neuron, propagating the electrical signal down the axon. Refractory period Refers to the period of time during which the response to a second stimulus is significantly slowed because a first stimulus is still being processed. All-or-none principle Refers to the fact that the action potential in the axon occurs either full-blown or not at all. (100% or 0%, no in-between. A neuron fires with the same potency each time.) Depolarization A change in the electrical charge of a neuron, specifically the reversal of the usual negative resting potential to a more positive state. This electrical change is crucial for transmitting signals in the nervous system. Excitation The activation or stimulation of a neuron, often involving the reversal of its electrical charge, making it more likely to transmit signals in the nervous system. Inhibition The suppression or reduction of neural activity. It regulates and balances neural signals contributing to the complexity and precision of information processing in the brain. Sodium-potassium pump Cellular mechanism that transports sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions against large concentration gradients. It moves two potassium ions into the cell where potassium levels are high, and pumps three sodium ions out of the cell and into the extracellular fluid. This process requires energy in the form of ATP and helps maintain the cell's resting membrane potential, regulate osmotic balance, and create the conditions necessary for nerve impulse transmission. Synaptic vesicles Small membrane-bound sacs found within the synaptic terminals of neurons. These vesicles contain neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers responsible for transmitting signals across synapses, the junctions between neurons. When a signal (action potential) reaches the end of a neuron, tiny sacs (synaptic vesicles) release chemicals (neurotransmitters) into the gap (synaptic cleft) between that neuron and the next. These chemicals help messages move from one neuron to another, allowing nerve signals to be transmitted in the brain and throughout the nervous system. Neurotransmitters (at least 2 specific) - Dopamine (DA) : Excitatory or inhibitory; involved in the control of movement and sensations of pleasure - Norepinephrine (NE): Mainly excitatory; involved in arousal and mood Reuptake Process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them, after transmitting a signal across the synapse. This recycling mechanism helps regulate the levels of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft and is crucial for maintaining proper neural function. Lock-and-key The "lock-and-key" analogy is often used to describe the specificity of the interaction between neurotransmitters and their receptors. In this analogy, the neurotransmitter is the "key" that fits into a specific "lock," which is the receptor on the receiving neuron's membrane. Just as a key must fit precisely into a lock to open it, a neurotransmitter must bind to its specific receptor to transmit signals effectively. This concept illustrates the specificity and selectivity of neurotransmitter-receptor interactions in neural communication.