NSG 533 Exam 1 Queries And Solutions(Verified 100% Correctly) Latest Updates 2024

NSG 533 Exam 1 Queries And Solutions(Verified 100% Correctly) Latest Updates 2024 5 essential components of pathophysiology - answers 1. Etiology 2. Epidemiology 3. Pathogenesis 4. Clinical Manifestations 5. Outcomes other terms for "unknown" etiology of disease - answers idiopathic and cryptogenic define iatrogenic - answers etiology of disease as a result of surgical/medical intervention define incidence of epidemiology - answers the new number of cases in a given population in a specific time period define prevalence of epidemiology - answers number of cases, both old and new, during a specific time period what are the four common mechanisms of cell injury and death - answers 1. ATP Depletion 2. Oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals 3. intracellular calcium and loss of calcium state 4. defects in membrane permeability what is the most common stressor of disease - answers ATP deletion what are the two phases of ATP production? - answers 1. Anaerobic (glycolysis) 2. Aerobic (oxidative phosphorylation) how many ATP does glycolysis yield? - answers 2 How many ATP does oxidative phosphorylation yield? - answers 36 in ATP depletion, what are the four critical points where ATP production may be impaired? - answers 1. Hypoxia 2. ischemia - answers reduced blood flow Explain hypoxia in terms of ATP depletion - answers obstruction --> ischemia --> decreased ATP production --> a) sodium/potassium ion pump fails, and b) increased anaerobic glycolysis explain what happens when the Na-K-ATPase pump fails due to decreased ATP production - answers normally, most sodium ions are outside the cell and most potassium ions are inside the cell when the pump fails, sodium freely enters the cell with H2O and calcium, and potassium freely exits the cell as a result, the cell swells and and protein synthesis stops where does protein synthesis occur in a cell? - answers Rough ER with ribosomes on the surface explain what happens where there is an increase in glycolysis due to decreased ATP production - answers glycogen is decreased, lactate is increased, intracellular pH is decreased decreased pH results in pyknosis, karyorrhexis, and karyolysis define free radicals - answers unstable compounds with an unpaired electron why are free radicals bad? - answers they bind to the phospholipid bilayer of a cell and drill holes in its membrane what are reactive oxygen species? - answers highly reactive forms of oxygen typically from the mitochondria why are antioxidants important - answers protect cells from free radicals and ROS are antioxidants increased or decreased in oxidative stress - answers decreased :( what are three diseases linked to oxygen-derived free radicals? - answers 1. Atherosclerosis 2. Cancer 3. Diabetes define oxidative stress - answers Injury induced by free-radicals and ROS two endogenous accumulations - answers 1. Lipids 2. Bilirubin define reperfusion injury - answers when blood flow is restored to ischemic tissues, additional damage can occur resulting in cell death proposed reasons for reperfusion injury (5) - answers 1. oxidative stress 2. nitrogen-based free radicals 3. increased intracellular calcium 4. inflammation 5. complement activation explain oxidative stress as it relates to reperfusion injury - answers reoxygenation generates ROS and nitrogen species, which damages membrane proteins and phospholipids what four ROS are generated in oxidative stress? - answers 1. Hydroxyl radical 2. superoxide radical ion 3. nitric oxide-derived peroxynitrite 4. hydrogen peroxide what happens when nitrogen-based free radicals are formed in reperfusion injury? - answers further damage to the cell membrane occurs and calcium overloads the mitochondria explain bilirubin - answers a pigment that is released when RBC break down --> pigment is released into the bloodstream as unconjugated bilirubin, which cannot be excreted into the urine --> taken up by the liver cells --> binds to glucuronic acid --> becomes conjugated bilirubin, which can be excreted in the urine two ways bilirubin leaves the liver cells - answers 1. diffusion once bilirubin concentration is high 2. some bilirubin becomes bile --> exits liver cell through hepatic duct/common bile duct, then into the duodenum three issues with hyperbilirubinemia - answers 1. hemolytic jaundice 2. hepatocellular jaundice 3. obstructive jaundice explain hemolytic jaundice - answers excessive amounts of hemoglobin is broken down, resulting in too much bilirubin in the bloodstream that cannot be delivered to the liver cells signs of hemolytic jaundice - answers yellow discoloration of the skin and connective tissue explain hepatocellular jaundice - answers normal amount of bilirubin, however, liver cells do not function at either a) uptake, b) conjugation, or c) excretion