Theme 2: Organizational Development and Change
Theories and Models for Organizational Change......................................................................2
Jex (Chapter 15) - Organizational Change and Development.................................. 2
French - Foundations of Organization Development................................................ 13
Cummings - The Nature of Planned Change.............................................................. 19
Organizational Change Research Methods.............................................................................. 22
Cummings - Collecting, Analyzing, and Feeding Back Diagnostic Information 22
Organizational Change Interventions........................................................................................ 24
Cummings - Interpersonal and Group Process Approaches...................................24
Resistance and/or Reactions to Organizational Change....................................................... 24
Oreg - An Affect-Based Model of Recipients’ Responses to Organizational
Change Events......................................................................................................................24
Li - Employee Coping with Organizational Change in the Face of A Pandemic26
,Theories and Models for Organizational Change
Jex (Chapter 15) - Organizational Change and Development
● Nearly everything is important.
● Understand the essence of models and their unique contributions.
Defining Organizational Development
Definition: “Organizational development is a set of behavioral science– based theories, values,
strategies, and technologies aimed at planned change of the organizational work setting for
the purpose of enhancing individual development and improving organizational performance,
through the alteration of organizational members’ on-the-job behaviors”
● Organizational development differs from organizational interventions because OD
enhances both organizational performance and individual development, while OI
focuses on either one.
● Organizational development differs from organizational change approaches because
OD is rooted in theories and methodology while OC is based on changes in
manufacturing tech or information systems.
● The key to organizational change is changing the behavior of employees.
Why OD Is Used: Organizations use it for survival, due to poor organizational performance, to
change for strategic reasons, as a proactive response to anticipated changes in the external
environment, and for self-improvement (no external pressure and no concrete strategic reasons
involved).
Brief History of OD
● Kurt Lewin made significant contributions with his Three-Step Model of Change and
Action Research, and setting up The Center for the Study of Group Dynamics.
The Theory Base of Organizational Development: Consultants apply interventions based on
empiricism and sometimes trial and error. However, organizational development has a solid
theoretical base that can be used as guidance.
General Theories of Change
● Lewin’s Three-Step Model: Oldest, 1947. Strengths are that
it is simple and provides some useful guidance like preparing
the employees for change and anticipating some resistance.
Limitations are that it is too simple, it doesn’t provide a great
deal of guidance on how to carry out changes, and lacks
explanatory power.
○ Unfreezing: An organization recognizes the need for
change. It is a crucial step because if the organization
doesn’t recognize the need there won’t be change.
Many factors could be the motivator for it like financial loss, major
, environmental change which are called the unfreezing events. Sometimes the
factors may not be connected to the need for organizational change.
○ Transformation/Change: Tangible changes in the way an organization operates.
It is crucial and difficult. There has to be a readiness for change within an
organization.
○ Refreezing: Changes from the second step become relatively permanent. It can
be difficult due to resistant employees and they might revert to the old way of
doing things. For true refreezing, employees must realize that it is in their best
interest to maintain the changes.
● The Action Research Model: The general idea is that
organizational change is similar to a cyclical research process
because it can repeat itself to answer empirical questions that
come up during the research. During all phases of the research
process there is active collaboration between the researcher
and the clients → the client assumes ownership of the change
process (this is important for maintaining change).
Organizational change is viewed as a continuing cyclical
process of hypothesis generation, data collection, etc. and
ultimately intervention. Similar criticisms as the 3 step model.
○ Problem Identification: There has to be some recognition
of a problem that people care about.
○ Development of Hypotheses: There could be many causes of a particular
problem, but with the help of theories and experienced organizational members
it is possible to narrow it down and focus on some causes and ignore the others.
○ Hypothesis Testing/Data Collection: This step distinguishes action research from
less scientific forms of inquiry since it uses the scientific method.
○ Data Interpretation: Deciding if the empirical data supports the proposed
hypotheses. Researchers can “decide how to decide” whether the data supports
the hypothesis by using inferential statistical methods.
● General Systems Theory: Organizations import material from the environment,
transform that input, and ultimately return it to the environment in some altered form.
○ This means that organizations are in a constant dynamic interaction with their
external environments.
○ Organizations change in reaction to, or in anticipation of, changes in the external
environment. If they were “closed systems” they would ignore the external
environment and would be in little need for change or development.
Theories and Models for Organizational Change......................................................................2
Jex (Chapter 15) - Organizational Change and Development.................................. 2
French - Foundations of Organization Development................................................ 13
Cummings - The Nature of Planned Change.............................................................. 19
Organizational Change Research Methods.............................................................................. 22
Cummings - Collecting, Analyzing, and Feeding Back Diagnostic Information 22
Organizational Change Interventions........................................................................................ 24
Cummings - Interpersonal and Group Process Approaches...................................24
Resistance and/or Reactions to Organizational Change....................................................... 24
Oreg - An Affect-Based Model of Recipients’ Responses to Organizational
Change Events......................................................................................................................24
Li - Employee Coping with Organizational Change in the Face of A Pandemic26
,Theories and Models for Organizational Change
Jex (Chapter 15) - Organizational Change and Development
● Nearly everything is important.
● Understand the essence of models and their unique contributions.
Defining Organizational Development
Definition: “Organizational development is a set of behavioral science– based theories, values,
strategies, and technologies aimed at planned change of the organizational work setting for
the purpose of enhancing individual development and improving organizational performance,
through the alteration of organizational members’ on-the-job behaviors”
● Organizational development differs from organizational interventions because OD
enhances both organizational performance and individual development, while OI
focuses on either one.
● Organizational development differs from organizational change approaches because
OD is rooted in theories and methodology while OC is based on changes in
manufacturing tech or information systems.
● The key to organizational change is changing the behavior of employees.
Why OD Is Used: Organizations use it for survival, due to poor organizational performance, to
change for strategic reasons, as a proactive response to anticipated changes in the external
environment, and for self-improvement (no external pressure and no concrete strategic reasons
involved).
Brief History of OD
● Kurt Lewin made significant contributions with his Three-Step Model of Change and
Action Research, and setting up The Center for the Study of Group Dynamics.
The Theory Base of Organizational Development: Consultants apply interventions based on
empiricism and sometimes trial and error. However, organizational development has a solid
theoretical base that can be used as guidance.
General Theories of Change
● Lewin’s Three-Step Model: Oldest, 1947. Strengths are that
it is simple and provides some useful guidance like preparing
the employees for change and anticipating some resistance.
Limitations are that it is too simple, it doesn’t provide a great
deal of guidance on how to carry out changes, and lacks
explanatory power.
○ Unfreezing: An organization recognizes the need for
change. It is a crucial step because if the organization
doesn’t recognize the need there won’t be change.
Many factors could be the motivator for it like financial loss, major
, environmental change which are called the unfreezing events. Sometimes the
factors may not be connected to the need for organizational change.
○ Transformation/Change: Tangible changes in the way an organization operates.
It is crucial and difficult. There has to be a readiness for change within an
organization.
○ Refreezing: Changes from the second step become relatively permanent. It can
be difficult due to resistant employees and they might revert to the old way of
doing things. For true refreezing, employees must realize that it is in their best
interest to maintain the changes.
● The Action Research Model: The general idea is that
organizational change is similar to a cyclical research process
because it can repeat itself to answer empirical questions that
come up during the research. During all phases of the research
process there is active collaboration between the researcher
and the clients → the client assumes ownership of the change
process (this is important for maintaining change).
Organizational change is viewed as a continuing cyclical
process of hypothesis generation, data collection, etc. and
ultimately intervention. Similar criticisms as the 3 step model.
○ Problem Identification: There has to be some recognition
of a problem that people care about.
○ Development of Hypotheses: There could be many causes of a particular
problem, but with the help of theories and experienced organizational members
it is possible to narrow it down and focus on some causes and ignore the others.
○ Hypothesis Testing/Data Collection: This step distinguishes action research from
less scientific forms of inquiry since it uses the scientific method.
○ Data Interpretation: Deciding if the empirical data supports the proposed
hypotheses. Researchers can “decide how to decide” whether the data supports
the hypothesis by using inferential statistical methods.
● General Systems Theory: Organizations import material from the environment,
transform that input, and ultimately return it to the environment in some altered form.
○ This means that organizations are in a constant dynamic interaction with their
external environments.
○ Organizations change in reaction to, or in anticipation of, changes in the external
environment. If they were “closed systems” they would ignore the external
environment and would be in little need for change or development.
