AQA A level Psychology - Paper 3 topics Exam Questions and Answers

AQA A level Psychology - Paper 3 topics Exam Questions and Answers Gender bias - Answer-Psychologists seek universality but bias may be inevitable (social historical contexts) Gender bias: psychological theory/research not accurately represent experience/behaviour of men + women Alpha bias: differences exaggerated, devalue women E.g. Freud = genuine psychological differences due to physiological differences Girls suffer from 'penis envy', femininity is failed masculinity Beta bias: differences minimised, needs of women ignored E.g. fight or flight research = male only sample, assumed would be applicable, Taylor et al: tend and befriend (governed by oxytocin) Androcentrism: male behaviour seen as normal, deviations seen as abnormal/inferior Female behaviour misunderstood/pathologised E.g. feminists object to PMS, medicalises female emotions by explaining in hormonal terms (Male anger often seen as rational response to external pressures) Gender bias (- in psych research) - Answer-May create misleading assumptions about female behaviour/validate discriminatory practices Scientific justification to deny opportunities (e.g. due to PMS) Damaging consequences on lives/prospects Gender bias (- promotes sexism in research process) - Answer-Lack of women at senior research level = female concerns not reflected in research questions asked Men more likely to be published Female ppts in inequitable relationship with researcher (power to label irrational/unable to complete tasks) Constitutional sexism - creates bias in theory/research Gender bias (+ feminist psychologists suggest how to avoid) - Answer-Worrell & Remer: Studied within meaningful real life contexts Participate instead of objects of study Study diversity within groups of women rather than comparisons to men Collaborative research methods (qualitative data) Preferable/less biased Cultural bias - Answer-Psych claims to unearth universal truths but may only apply to particular groups studied Wrongly assumed western findings would apply all over the world E.g. conformity (Asch) and obedience (Milgram) produced different results outside of US Standard/norm for behaviour judged from one culture = cultural differences seen as abnormal Ethnocentrism: belief in superiority of own culture Behaviour that doesn't conform to Western model = deficient E.g. Ainsworth's strange situation (American norms/values, separation anxiety defining, secure = ideal, German mothers labelled cold/rejecting, inappropriate measure for non- US children) Cultural relativism may help reduce bias Facts/things only make sense from perspective of culture within which discovered Berry: Etic approach: looking at behaviours outside of culture and identifying universal Emic approach: looking at behaviour within culture and identifying culturally specific Imposed etic: e.g. Ainsworth studies within single culture and assumed could be applied universally Cultural bias (- distinction between individuaism/collectivism) - Answer-Value of individual/independence vs value ofgroup/interdependence Lazy/simplistic distinction, no longer applies Takano & Osaka: 14/15 studies comparing US and Japan found no evidence of distinction between culture types Form of cultural bias less of issue than once was Cultural bias (recognition of both relativism/universals) - Answer-Imposed etic shows culturally specific nature of psychology Should not assume all psychology is culturally relative/no such thing as universal behaviour Ekman: basic facial expressions for emotions same all over human/animal world Attachment behaviours universal (imitation/interactional synchrony) Full understanding requires study of both universals/variations among individuals/groups Cultural bias (cross-cultural research prone to demand characteristics) - Answer- Western cultures: familiarity with aims/objectives of scientific enquiry assumed Cultures without historical experience of research, local populations more affected by demand characteristics Unfamiliarity with research tradition threatens validity of outcomes Free will/determinism - Answer-Free will: we are self-determining Free to choose thoughts/actions Biological/environmental influences on behaviour but can reject No cause/unpredictable Humanistic approach Determinism: behaviour shaped/controlled by internal/external forces Hard = completely out of control, all has cause possible to identify, predictable, compatible with aims of science Soft = all has cause, conscious mental control over behaviour, behaviour predictable to extent, some free will to make choices Biological determinism Biological approach, control from internal biological factors (physiological/genetic/hormonal) Physiological processes not under conscious control (e.g. influence of ANS on stress/anxiety) Genetic factors may determine behaviours/characteristics (e.g. mental disorders) Hormones may determine behaviour (e.g. testosterone linked to aggression) Environmental determinism Popularised by behaviourist approach Skinner: all result of conditioning Choice = total sum of reinforcement contingencies acted upon during lives Illusion of free will, shaped by environmental events/agents of socialisation (e.g. parents, teachers, institutions) Psychic determinism Flreud: free will = illusion, emphasis on biological drives/instincts underpinning responses Determined/directed by unconscious conflicts repressed in childho