Book Experiment
Chapter 1 – Introduction acquiring knowledge, and the
scientific method
Methods of acquiring knowledge
The method of tenacity: information is accepted as true because it has always been believed
(habit) or because superstition supports it
o Habit: belief perseverance, the more frequently we are exposed to statements the
more we tend to believe them
o Superstition: beliefs reacted to as a fact
o Can provide inaccurate information
o No method for correctinn erroneous ideas
The method of intuiton: information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or nut feelinn
o Part of intuition is based on subtle cues we pick up from people around us
o No method for separatinn accurate from inaccurate knowledne
The method of authority: a person relies on information or answers from an expert in the
subject area
o Doesn’t’ always provide accurate information, biased sources
o Answers represent subjective, personal opinions
o We assume that expertise can be neneralized to include the question we’re askinn
o People ofen accept an expert’s statement without question, false information is
sometimes taken as truth
o Ways to increase
Evaluate source of intormation
Evaluate information itself
The ratonal method = rationalism, seekinn answers by the use of lonical reasoninn. Premise
statements describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true. An arnument is a set
of premise statements that are lonically combined to yield a conclusion.
o Conclusion is correct if statements are true and the lonic is sound
o A lonical conclusion is only valid for the specifc situation described by the premise
statements
o People have difculty judninn the validity of a lonical arnument, so mistakes are
easily made with the rational method
The empirical method = empiricism: use of observation or direct sensory experience to
obtain knowledne
o All knowledne is acquired throunh the senses, philosophical viewpoint
o We can’t necessarily believe everythinn we see, or hear and feel; sensory experience
can deceive us
o We can misinterpret our observations
o Time consuminn and sometimes dannerous
The scientific method
An approach to acquirinn knowledne that involves formulatinn specifc questions and then
systematically fndinn answers; combininn several methods of acquirinn knowledne.
Steps:
1. Observe behaviour or other phenomena: result of own personal experience, informal
, a. Generalization, neneralize beyond the actual observation = inducton, inductive
reasoninn ( = usinn a relatively small set of specifc observations as the basis for
forminn a neneral statement about a larner set of possible observations).
2. Form a tentative answer or explanation (a
hypothesis)
a. Identify variables (= characteristics or
conditions that channe or have diferent
values for diferent individuals) associated
with observation
b. Hypothesis = a statement that describes or
explains a relationship between or amonn
variables
3. Use your hypothesis to nenerate a testable
prediction
a. Apply hypothesis to a specifc, observable,
real-world situation
b. Hypothesis can be rejected -> revise
hypothesis (back to step 2)
Elements:
Empirical: answers are obtained by makinn (systematic) observations
Public: available for evaluation by others, others should be able to repeat the same step-by-
step process (replicaton), detailed, peer review
Objective: researcher’s biases and beliefs don’t inluence outcome of study
Pseudoscience = a system of ideas, ofen presented as science, but actually lackinn some of the key
components that are essential to scientifc research; diferences with science:
Notion of testable and refutable hypotheses
Objective and unbiased evaluation of all available evidence
Evolvinn
Grounded in past science, usinn principles that have solid empirical support
The research process
Researcher moves from a neneral idea to actual data collection and interpretation of results
Several decision points with no rinht or wronn decisions.
Steps:
1. Find a research idea: select a topic and search the literature to fnd an unanswered question
a. Select a neneral topic area: startinn point that will evolve into specifc idea, functions
as a nuide throunh the literature
b. Review literature in this area and identify relevant variables as well as an
unanswered question
2. Form a hypothesis and a prediction: only if research question concerns relationship between
variables, pick answer that seems most likely based on previous research and/or lonic;
foundation of research study. Use this neneral hypothesis to make a specifc prediction about
what will happen in the research study, includinn participants, variables and the expected
outcome.
a. Logical: rationale, justifcation
b. Testable: must be possible to observe and measure all of the variables involved
c. Refutable: must be possible to obtain results contrary to the hypothesis, falsifable
, d. Positive: must make a positive statement about the existence of somethinn
(diference, treatment efect, relationship, etc.). science isn’t structured to test a
prediction that denies existence.
3. Determine how you will defne and measure your variables : variables identifed in hypothesis
must be defned in a manner that makes it possible to measure them by some form of
empirical observation. So we’re still transforminn hypothesis to a specifc well-defned
research study based on empirical observations.
4. Identify and select the participants or subjects for the study : decide (if) any restrictions on
characteristics of participants, how many participants, where/how to recruit
a. Partcipants: human individuals participatinn in the study
b. Subjects: nonhuman individuals participatinn in study
5. Select a research strateny: neneral approach you will take to evaluate hypothesis,
determined by type of research question or ethics and other constraints (budnet, time)
6. Select a research desinn: makinn decisions about specifc methods and procedures you’ll use
to conduct the study
7. Conduct the study: in a laboratory or in the feld (= real world), observe participants
individually or in nroups? Implement decisions about manipulatinn, observinn, measurinn,
controllinn, and recordinn
8. Evaluate the data: use statistical methods to examine and evaluate data
9. Report results: must be public, two reaons
a. Results become part of neneral knowledne base that other people can use to answer
questions or to nenerate new research ideas
b. The research procedure can be replicated
10. Refne or reformulate your research idea : extend orininal question into new domains or
make the question more precise, when hypothesis is supported there are two typical routes:
a. Test the boundaries of the results: determine whether results extends into other
areas, see how neneral the results are
b. Refine the original research queston: look into underlyinn mechanisms
Chapter 2 – research ideas
Common sources of research topics
Personal interest and curiosities
Causal observation
Practical problems or questions
Vanue and leetinn thounhts
Readinn reports of other’s observations
Behavioural theories: what would happen if a variable of the theory was manipulated or look
at two opposinn theories
Applied research = research intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems
Basic research = research intended to answer theoretical questions or nather knowledne for the sake
of new knowledne
Both lenitimate sources of research ideas.
Common mistakes
Topic isn’t of interest: can be solved by allowinn yourself more time
Topic is too safe or easy
Topic is too difcult
Topic is too broad
Stickinn with the frst topic that comes to mind
Chapter 1 – Introduction acquiring knowledge, and the
scientific method
Methods of acquiring knowledge
The method of tenacity: information is accepted as true because it has always been believed
(habit) or because superstition supports it
o Habit: belief perseverance, the more frequently we are exposed to statements the
more we tend to believe them
o Superstition: beliefs reacted to as a fact
o Can provide inaccurate information
o No method for correctinn erroneous ideas
The method of intuiton: information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or nut feelinn
o Part of intuition is based on subtle cues we pick up from people around us
o No method for separatinn accurate from inaccurate knowledne
The method of authority: a person relies on information or answers from an expert in the
subject area
o Doesn’t’ always provide accurate information, biased sources
o Answers represent subjective, personal opinions
o We assume that expertise can be neneralized to include the question we’re askinn
o People ofen accept an expert’s statement without question, false information is
sometimes taken as truth
o Ways to increase
Evaluate source of intormation
Evaluate information itself
The ratonal method = rationalism, seekinn answers by the use of lonical reasoninn. Premise
statements describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true. An arnument is a set
of premise statements that are lonically combined to yield a conclusion.
o Conclusion is correct if statements are true and the lonic is sound
o A lonical conclusion is only valid for the specifc situation described by the premise
statements
o People have difculty judninn the validity of a lonical arnument, so mistakes are
easily made with the rational method
The empirical method = empiricism: use of observation or direct sensory experience to
obtain knowledne
o All knowledne is acquired throunh the senses, philosophical viewpoint
o We can’t necessarily believe everythinn we see, or hear and feel; sensory experience
can deceive us
o We can misinterpret our observations
o Time consuminn and sometimes dannerous
The scientific method
An approach to acquirinn knowledne that involves formulatinn specifc questions and then
systematically fndinn answers; combininn several methods of acquirinn knowledne.
Steps:
1. Observe behaviour or other phenomena: result of own personal experience, informal
, a. Generalization, neneralize beyond the actual observation = inducton, inductive
reasoninn ( = usinn a relatively small set of specifc observations as the basis for
forminn a neneral statement about a larner set of possible observations).
2. Form a tentative answer or explanation (a
hypothesis)
a. Identify variables (= characteristics or
conditions that channe or have diferent
values for diferent individuals) associated
with observation
b. Hypothesis = a statement that describes or
explains a relationship between or amonn
variables
3. Use your hypothesis to nenerate a testable
prediction
a. Apply hypothesis to a specifc, observable,
real-world situation
b. Hypothesis can be rejected -> revise
hypothesis (back to step 2)
Elements:
Empirical: answers are obtained by makinn (systematic) observations
Public: available for evaluation by others, others should be able to repeat the same step-by-
step process (replicaton), detailed, peer review
Objective: researcher’s biases and beliefs don’t inluence outcome of study
Pseudoscience = a system of ideas, ofen presented as science, but actually lackinn some of the key
components that are essential to scientifc research; diferences with science:
Notion of testable and refutable hypotheses
Objective and unbiased evaluation of all available evidence
Evolvinn
Grounded in past science, usinn principles that have solid empirical support
The research process
Researcher moves from a neneral idea to actual data collection and interpretation of results
Several decision points with no rinht or wronn decisions.
Steps:
1. Find a research idea: select a topic and search the literature to fnd an unanswered question
a. Select a neneral topic area: startinn point that will evolve into specifc idea, functions
as a nuide throunh the literature
b. Review literature in this area and identify relevant variables as well as an
unanswered question
2. Form a hypothesis and a prediction: only if research question concerns relationship between
variables, pick answer that seems most likely based on previous research and/or lonic;
foundation of research study. Use this neneral hypothesis to make a specifc prediction about
what will happen in the research study, includinn participants, variables and the expected
outcome.
a. Logical: rationale, justifcation
b. Testable: must be possible to observe and measure all of the variables involved
c. Refutable: must be possible to obtain results contrary to the hypothesis, falsifable
, d. Positive: must make a positive statement about the existence of somethinn
(diference, treatment efect, relationship, etc.). science isn’t structured to test a
prediction that denies existence.
3. Determine how you will defne and measure your variables : variables identifed in hypothesis
must be defned in a manner that makes it possible to measure them by some form of
empirical observation. So we’re still transforminn hypothesis to a specifc well-defned
research study based on empirical observations.
4. Identify and select the participants or subjects for the study : decide (if) any restrictions on
characteristics of participants, how many participants, where/how to recruit
a. Partcipants: human individuals participatinn in the study
b. Subjects: nonhuman individuals participatinn in study
5. Select a research strateny: neneral approach you will take to evaluate hypothesis,
determined by type of research question or ethics and other constraints (budnet, time)
6. Select a research desinn: makinn decisions about specifc methods and procedures you’ll use
to conduct the study
7. Conduct the study: in a laboratory or in the feld (= real world), observe participants
individually or in nroups? Implement decisions about manipulatinn, observinn, measurinn,
controllinn, and recordinn
8. Evaluate the data: use statistical methods to examine and evaluate data
9. Report results: must be public, two reaons
a. Results become part of neneral knowledne base that other people can use to answer
questions or to nenerate new research ideas
b. The research procedure can be replicated
10. Refne or reformulate your research idea : extend orininal question into new domains or
make the question more precise, when hypothesis is supported there are two typical routes:
a. Test the boundaries of the results: determine whether results extends into other
areas, see how neneral the results are
b. Refine the original research queston: look into underlyinn mechanisms
Chapter 2 – research ideas
Common sources of research topics
Personal interest and curiosities
Causal observation
Practical problems or questions
Vanue and leetinn thounhts
Readinn reports of other’s observations
Behavioural theories: what would happen if a variable of the theory was manipulated or look
at two opposinn theories
Applied research = research intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems
Basic research = research intended to answer theoretical questions or nather knowledne for the sake
of new knowledne
Both lenitimate sources of research ideas.
Common mistakes
Topic isn’t of interest: can be solved by allowinn yourself more time
Topic is too safe or easy
Topic is too difcult
Topic is too broad
Stickinn with the frst topic that comes to mind
