CHAPTER 2 The scientific approach and alternative
approaches to investigation
THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
1. Purposiveness - research with a definite aim or purpose.
2. Rigor - rigorous research involves a good theoretical base and a carefully thought ‐out
methodology.
3. Testability - a property that applies to the hypotheses of a study.
4. Replicability - demonstrates that our hypotheses have not been supported merely by
chance, but are reflective of the true state of affairs in the population.
5. Precision and confidence – precision refers to the closeness of the findings to
“reality” based on a sample. In other words, precision reflects the degree of accuracy
or exactitude of the results on the basis of the sample, to what really exists in the
universe. Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct.
6. Objectivity - the conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data
analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the findings
derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective or emotional values.
7. Generalizability - refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one
organizational setting to other settings.
8. Parsimony - Parsimony can be introduced with a good understanding of the problem
and the important factors that influence it.
The seven-step process in the hypothetico-deductive method
1. Identify a broad problem area.
2. Define the problem statement.
3. Develop hypotheses.
4. Determine measures.
5. Data collection.
6. Data analysis.
7. Interpretation of data.
, Deductive reasoning - work from the more general to the more specific.
Inductive reasoning - a process where we observe specific phenomena and on this
basis arrive at general conclusions.
Deductive approach – threory driven research
Inductive approach – data driven research
ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO RESEARCH
Positivism - in a positivist view of the world, science and scientific research is seen as
the way to get at the truth – indeed, positivists believe that there is an objective
truth out there – to understand the world well enough so that we are able to predict
and control it.
Constructionism - criticizes the positivist belief that there is an objective truth.
Constructionists hold the opposite view, namely that the world (as we know it!) is
fundamentally mental or mentally constructed.
Critical realism - a combination of the belief in an external reality (an objective truth)
with the rejection of the claim that this external reality can be objectively measured;
observations (especially observations on phenomena that we cannot observe and
measure directly, such as satisfaction, motivation, culture) will always be subject to
interpretation.
Pragmatism - pragmatists do not take on a particular position on what makes good
research. They feel that research on both objective, observable phenomena and
subjective meanings can produce useful knowledge, depending on the research
questions of the study. Pragmatism describes research as a process where concepts
and meanings (theory) are generalizations of our past actions and experiences, and
of interactions we have had with our environment.
,CHAPTER 6 Elements of research design
Research strategies
Experiments - experiments are usually associated with a hypothetico‐deductive
approach to research. The purpose of an experiment is to study causal relationships
between variables. Experimental designs are less useful or appropriate for answering
exploratory and descriptive research questions.
Survey research - a system for collecting information from or about people to
describe, compare, or explain their knowledge, attitudes, and behavior.
Ethnography - a research strategy that has its roots in anthropology. It is a strategy in
which the researcher “closely observes, records, and engages in the daily life of
another culture [. . .] and then writes accounts of this culture, emphasizing
descriptive detail”
Case studies - focus on collecting information about a specific object, event or
activity, such as a particular business unit or organization.
Grounded theory - a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived
theory from the data action research is a research strategy aimed at effecting
planned changes.
Extent of researcher interference with the study
, Minimal: Studying events as they normally occur
Manipulation and/or control and/or simulation
Study setting: contrived and noncontrived
Non-Contrived Setting: When research conducted in the natural environment where
work proceeds normally.
Contrived Setting: When research conducted in artificial environment.
Field experiments - Studies conducted to establish cause‐and‐effect relationships
using the same natural environment in which the subjects under study (employees,
consumers, managers, and the like) normally function
Field studies - Studies done in noncontrived settings
Lab experiments - experiments done to establish a cause‐and‐effect relationship
beyond the possibility of the least doubt require the creation of an artificial,
contrived environment in which all the extraneous factors are strictly controlled
Unit of analysis: individuals, dyads, groups, organizations, cultures
The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the
subsequent data analysis stage.
Time horizon: cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies
Cross-sectional studies are observational studies that analyze data from a population
at a single point in time.
Longitudinal studies - studies, as when data on the dependent variable are gathered
at two or more points in time to answer the research question
MIXED METHODS
Mixed methods research aims to answer research questions that cannot be answered by
“qualitative” or “quantitative” approaches alone. Mixed methods research focuses on
collecting, analyzing, and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or
series of studies.
Method triangulation: using multiple methods of data collection and analysis.
Data triangulation: collecting data from several sources and/or at different time
periods.
Researcher triangulation: multiple researchers collect and/or analyze the data.
Theory triangulation: multiple theories and/or perspectives are used to interpret
and explain the data.
approaches to investigation
THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
1. Purposiveness - research with a definite aim or purpose.
2. Rigor - rigorous research involves a good theoretical base and a carefully thought ‐out
methodology.
3. Testability - a property that applies to the hypotheses of a study.
4. Replicability - demonstrates that our hypotheses have not been supported merely by
chance, but are reflective of the true state of affairs in the population.
5. Precision and confidence – precision refers to the closeness of the findings to
“reality” based on a sample. In other words, precision reflects the degree of accuracy
or exactitude of the results on the basis of the sample, to what really exists in the
universe. Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct.
6. Objectivity - the conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data
analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the findings
derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective or emotional values.
7. Generalizability - refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one
organizational setting to other settings.
8. Parsimony - Parsimony can be introduced with a good understanding of the problem
and the important factors that influence it.
The seven-step process in the hypothetico-deductive method
1. Identify a broad problem area.
2. Define the problem statement.
3. Develop hypotheses.
4. Determine measures.
5. Data collection.
6. Data analysis.
7. Interpretation of data.
, Deductive reasoning - work from the more general to the more specific.
Inductive reasoning - a process where we observe specific phenomena and on this
basis arrive at general conclusions.
Deductive approach – threory driven research
Inductive approach – data driven research
ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO RESEARCH
Positivism - in a positivist view of the world, science and scientific research is seen as
the way to get at the truth – indeed, positivists believe that there is an objective
truth out there – to understand the world well enough so that we are able to predict
and control it.
Constructionism - criticizes the positivist belief that there is an objective truth.
Constructionists hold the opposite view, namely that the world (as we know it!) is
fundamentally mental or mentally constructed.
Critical realism - a combination of the belief in an external reality (an objective truth)
with the rejection of the claim that this external reality can be objectively measured;
observations (especially observations on phenomena that we cannot observe and
measure directly, such as satisfaction, motivation, culture) will always be subject to
interpretation.
Pragmatism - pragmatists do not take on a particular position on what makes good
research. They feel that research on both objective, observable phenomena and
subjective meanings can produce useful knowledge, depending on the research
questions of the study. Pragmatism describes research as a process where concepts
and meanings (theory) are generalizations of our past actions and experiences, and
of interactions we have had with our environment.
,CHAPTER 6 Elements of research design
Research strategies
Experiments - experiments are usually associated with a hypothetico‐deductive
approach to research. The purpose of an experiment is to study causal relationships
between variables. Experimental designs are less useful or appropriate for answering
exploratory and descriptive research questions.
Survey research - a system for collecting information from or about people to
describe, compare, or explain their knowledge, attitudes, and behavior.
Ethnography - a research strategy that has its roots in anthropology. It is a strategy in
which the researcher “closely observes, records, and engages in the daily life of
another culture [. . .] and then writes accounts of this culture, emphasizing
descriptive detail”
Case studies - focus on collecting information about a specific object, event or
activity, such as a particular business unit or organization.
Grounded theory - a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived
theory from the data action research is a research strategy aimed at effecting
planned changes.
Extent of researcher interference with the study
, Minimal: Studying events as they normally occur
Manipulation and/or control and/or simulation
Study setting: contrived and noncontrived
Non-Contrived Setting: When research conducted in the natural environment where
work proceeds normally.
Contrived Setting: When research conducted in artificial environment.
Field experiments - Studies conducted to establish cause‐and‐effect relationships
using the same natural environment in which the subjects under study (employees,
consumers, managers, and the like) normally function
Field studies - Studies done in noncontrived settings
Lab experiments - experiments done to establish a cause‐and‐effect relationship
beyond the possibility of the least doubt require the creation of an artificial,
contrived environment in which all the extraneous factors are strictly controlled
Unit of analysis: individuals, dyads, groups, organizations, cultures
The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the
subsequent data analysis stage.
Time horizon: cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies
Cross-sectional studies are observational studies that analyze data from a population
at a single point in time.
Longitudinal studies - studies, as when data on the dependent variable are gathered
at two or more points in time to answer the research question
MIXED METHODS
Mixed methods research aims to answer research questions that cannot be answered by
“qualitative” or “quantitative” approaches alone. Mixed methods research focuses on
collecting, analyzing, and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or
series of studies.
Method triangulation: using multiple methods of data collection and analysis.
Data triangulation: collecting data from several sources and/or at different time
periods.
Researcher triangulation: multiple researchers collect and/or analyze the data.
Theory triangulation: multiple theories and/or perspectives are used to interpret
and explain the data.
