Summary Sociology
Fundamentals of society
2. Biology
Evolution of the human speciees
The human species is the product of evoluton y natural selecton. In this process there is a selecton
for genes and traits (trekjes) to improve survival of the organism in a partcular environment. Thus,
all organisms have een selected for traits that ena led their ancestors to survive and reproduce.
Modern humans frst emerged as a species during the Pleistocene in Africa. Afer the human species
lef Africa there nere some evoluton that afected traits such as skin colour and eye shape. aach
human group adapted to ecological conditons of their nen homes. Honever, most of our species
typical traits nere evolved efore the modern human moved out of Africa.
Evolved prediesposietions
There is a selecton for ehavioural traits. or example: all people like sneet, fats and salts ecause
this nas an essental diet for the modern human in Africa during the Pleistocene. It nas handy to
consume as much as possi le to e a le to survive during periods of scarcity and epidemic. Thus
there nas selecton for this food preference and ne all inherited the preference of sneet, salts and
fats. This is honever not healthy anymore in our society and environment.
Selecton for ehavioural traits is really selecton for the genes that underlie the ehavioural traits.
Genes do not specify ehaviour directly ut encode for molecular products that uild the rain and
control its functoning.
Selfish behavieour
Selfsh individuals nere more likely to survive the evoluton and reproduce. Individual interests
included having material resources (food, shelter) and having social status. Both helped us survive
and reproduce. High social status nas important ecause it provided access to eter resources,
fnding a high quuality mate and ensured the nell eing of children.
Therefore, humans are likely to e predisposed (aanleg voor) to e self-interested and pursue
material resources and social status. This is the asis of the entre discipline of economics (focuses on
material interests and resources such as money) and the formaton of hierarchies.
Recieprocal Altruiesm (you do me a favour, I do you a favour)
Africa during the Stone age nas dangerous (snakes, insects, disease, nild animals hostle neigh ours).
People needed help of others to deal nith these dangers. An important asis of cooperaton in the
group nas reciprocal altruism. This is found in all societes and is an important asis of sociality. aven
most human economies are ased on reciprocal altruism.
Kien-based altruiesm
Not all evolved ehaviour is self-centered. The trait kin- ased altruism for example (kin selecton).
Individuals nho nere predisposed to help their genetc relatves did eter in evoluton than those
nho nere not predisposed. This means there is a cognitve or psychological ias tonard kin(related)
,and people nill e altruistc to people nho share their genes. Individuals are also more likely to
cooperate nith their genetc kin. or example: parents nho share genetc interests cooperate nith
each other in parentng their children.
Gender asymmetry ien parentinn
Among sexually reproducing species, one sex has a greater role in parentng. In our species the
female. The female must carry the fetus, undergo child irth and ear the physiological costs of
nursing ( reasteeding). The male’s iological contri uton much smaller. This means that the
female’s investment in the child is much greater. The child is therefore more dependent on their
mother for survival. or females each child is more precious than for the male from a iological
perspectve.
These diferences in reproductve interests lead to diferent ehaviours nith regard to matng and
parentng ehaviour. In our species females are interested in a male nho is nilling and a le to invest
in non iological nays in her ofspring.
or females there are greater ‘sunk costs’ afer they have invested so much and therefore nomen
are more likely to stck around and invest in their children. Men are interested in investng in their
kids ecause they share 50% of their genes. Honever, ecause dads have invested less in their child
they prefer to have a higher chance to get their genes into the next generaton (reproducton). ads
use the ‘love them and leave them strategy’.
These diferent strategies encourage females to have diferent mate preferences. Women are
interested in commited and high status mates ecause they nill more likely invest in potental
ofspring and can provide resources for possi le future children. In additon nomen nant to fnd the
est second genes they can fnd.
Men are likely to e more interested in youth and eauty in a mate ecause these indicate the a ility
to ear children. Males are also interested in faithful females as they don’t nant to e investng in
someone else’s child.
Impliecations of nender asymmetry: Sex diefferences ien mate choiece and famiely roles
A norm is nhat is expected or typical in a partcular circumstance. Women are ofen more interested
in the fnancial prospects the male can ring as she ofen cannot provide these herself. Men are
more interested in the physical eauty of the female. Men prefer younger mates nhereas nomen
prefer older mates.
Women have stronger psychological tes inding them to their children than men. In all human
societes nomen have the primary responsi ility for the care of their children. The diferent male
and female psychologies mean that fathers and mothers play a diferent social and emotonal role in
the family. A role is the set of typical ehaviours expected of a person in a partcular social positon.
The mother is ofen more involved and narmer nhereas the father spends less tme and is cooler.
Indieviedual diefferences
The paters and norms ne talked a out nere on average. There are diferences on an individual level.
People difer in personality characteristcs and have their onn preferences and ehaviour. Some of
the diferences are ased on genetcs and others on environment (family, school).
,Study of identcal tnins shons that many social ehaviours are inluenced y genes. It is not
necessary that you ehave in a nay nhen you have the genes predisposing you to one of those
ehaviours ut you are more likely to.
Hormones and behavieour
Hormones also inluence ehaviour. They are important regulators of some iological processes. The
neurohormone oxytocin for example. This hormone causes the onding etneen mothers and
infants (zuigelingen). Changing levels of hormones has consequuences. or example higher level of
testosterone causes individuals to have a higher spatal a ility (the a ility to rotate o jects in one’s
head).
The iemportance of the sietuation
All human predispositons (aanleg) nork in conjuncton nith environmental conditons. Thus,
although mothers are generally devoted to their children, there are situatons in nhich they kill their
onn children. This happened in huntng and gathering groups nhen the second child nas orn too
quuick afer the frst. The mother could not feed or care for tno children nhich could result in tno
children dying.
Predispositons nork in diferent directons and people have to make choices a out the est nay to
go.
Other evolved prediesposietions
Other predispositons related to sociology include predispositons tonard religion and magic,
ethnocentrism, male sexual jealousy, violent aggression in males and deference ehaviour in
females.
As all the other discussed predispositons, these nork in conjuncton nith environmental conditons
and social context of the individual.
Relienieon and maniec
Many elieve that ne have innate predispositons tonard religious eliefs and ehaviour. Religious
eliefs are universal and important to understanding human social ehaviour. In many societes
religion is the central to the operaton of society. In others, religion is less important.
Dieslieke of out nroups and ethnocentriesm
Human history is full of conlicts etneen groups. People in an in-group are likely to intermarry in
future and past and more likely to e related. This nas the case nhen groups nere small and
consisted of mostly related people. By favouring mem ers of the in-group a person is favouring those
nho likely share their genes. This leads to a higher chance of reproducton. Given this, it is likely that
all people have an innate tendency to e ethnocentric. Kin group favourism.
Male sexual jealousy
Male monitoring the sexual ehaviour of their mates is ofen displayed as sexual jealousy. In all
cultures men are more likely to e sexually jealous than nomen. These tendencies relect the
diferent reproductve interests of men and nomen nith men eing most concerned that their
partners e faithful and nomen eing most concerned that their partners not a andon them.
Relatves of the man are also interested in his nife’s sexual ehaviour to make sure their genes are
eing reproduced. Therefore the man’s relatves are helping monitoring sexual ehaviour of the nife.
, Also the noman’s relatve help monitoring her sexual ehaviour so that the noman is not deprived of
the hus and’s support.
The human species shons a greater oppression of females than other species. or example in
situatons in nhich ofspring ecame more important and in higher num ers as in pre-modern,
agricultural societes. The nife had to live nith the hus and’s family. The noman is in this case also
deprived of the support from her onn relatves and family.
In societes nith great economic inequuality oppression occurs ofen too as males have most invested
in children(e.g. equuests of property and positon) and more to lose if those investments are
misplaced. These lead to a great variety of practces to create male control and female
su ordinaton(ondergeschiktheid).
Another consequuence of male jealousy is male discomfort nith nives nho have greater status and
resources than themselves. Instead of a threat to the male’s ego it may e a threat to the male’s
reproductve interests as a noman might fnd a man nith a higher status. In additon she is less
dependent so less controlla le.
Vieolent annressieon ien males|
Male sexual jealousy frequuently fuels nife a use and nife eatng. Wife killing typically occurs just
afer the noman has lef the man. ooung nives are more likely to e a victm ecause they are the
most reproductvely valua le. Hus ands are most at risk of losing them to other men.
Though, most male violent is aimed at other men. Ofen the man is atemptng to defend his honour
as they express their aggression violently. Violence can e seen as a risky nay of o taining status and
resources nhen there is no possi ility for a less risky method. This causes a lot of violence among the
young, unemployed and lon socio economic status. Married, aged out and employed men are much
less likely to e violent.
Violence among males is likely to e an predispositon.
1. Male hormone testosterone is implicated in violence
2. O taining status and resources is essental in fnding a mate
Deference (eerbieed)behavieour
emale deference to males and lack of male deference to females is likely an evolved predispositon.
emale deference nould have advertsed youth and controlla ility so that females could fnd higher
status long term mates.
Male lack of deference nould have signalled high status so that males could fnd higher quuality
females.
The status of nomen increases nhen they are past child earing age.
Free wiell and the naturaliestic fallacy
It is important to avoid the naturalistc fallacy(that is, if it is natural then it has to e good) nhen
discussing predispositons. Like eatng sneets, fats and salts or distant parentng for fathers.
Fundamentals of society
2. Biology
Evolution of the human speciees
The human species is the product of evoluton y natural selecton. In this process there is a selecton
for genes and traits (trekjes) to improve survival of the organism in a partcular environment. Thus,
all organisms have een selected for traits that ena led their ancestors to survive and reproduce.
Modern humans frst emerged as a species during the Pleistocene in Africa. Afer the human species
lef Africa there nere some evoluton that afected traits such as skin colour and eye shape. aach
human group adapted to ecological conditons of their nen homes. Honever, most of our species
typical traits nere evolved efore the modern human moved out of Africa.
Evolved prediesposietions
There is a selecton for ehavioural traits. or example: all people like sneet, fats and salts ecause
this nas an essental diet for the modern human in Africa during the Pleistocene. It nas handy to
consume as much as possi le to e a le to survive during periods of scarcity and epidemic. Thus
there nas selecton for this food preference and ne all inherited the preference of sneet, salts and
fats. This is honever not healthy anymore in our society and environment.
Selecton for ehavioural traits is really selecton for the genes that underlie the ehavioural traits.
Genes do not specify ehaviour directly ut encode for molecular products that uild the rain and
control its functoning.
Selfish behavieour
Selfsh individuals nere more likely to survive the evoluton and reproduce. Individual interests
included having material resources (food, shelter) and having social status. Both helped us survive
and reproduce. High social status nas important ecause it provided access to eter resources,
fnding a high quuality mate and ensured the nell eing of children.
Therefore, humans are likely to e predisposed (aanleg voor) to e self-interested and pursue
material resources and social status. This is the asis of the entre discipline of economics (focuses on
material interests and resources such as money) and the formaton of hierarchies.
Recieprocal Altruiesm (you do me a favour, I do you a favour)
Africa during the Stone age nas dangerous (snakes, insects, disease, nild animals hostle neigh ours).
People needed help of others to deal nith these dangers. An important asis of cooperaton in the
group nas reciprocal altruism. This is found in all societes and is an important asis of sociality. aven
most human economies are ased on reciprocal altruism.
Kien-based altruiesm
Not all evolved ehaviour is self-centered. The trait kin- ased altruism for example (kin selecton).
Individuals nho nere predisposed to help their genetc relatves did eter in evoluton than those
nho nere not predisposed. This means there is a cognitve or psychological ias tonard kin(related)
,and people nill e altruistc to people nho share their genes. Individuals are also more likely to
cooperate nith their genetc kin. or example: parents nho share genetc interests cooperate nith
each other in parentng their children.
Gender asymmetry ien parentinn
Among sexually reproducing species, one sex has a greater role in parentng. In our species the
female. The female must carry the fetus, undergo child irth and ear the physiological costs of
nursing ( reasteeding). The male’s iological contri uton much smaller. This means that the
female’s investment in the child is much greater. The child is therefore more dependent on their
mother for survival. or females each child is more precious than for the male from a iological
perspectve.
These diferences in reproductve interests lead to diferent ehaviours nith regard to matng and
parentng ehaviour. In our species females are interested in a male nho is nilling and a le to invest
in non iological nays in her ofspring.
or females there are greater ‘sunk costs’ afer they have invested so much and therefore nomen
are more likely to stck around and invest in their children. Men are interested in investng in their
kids ecause they share 50% of their genes. Honever, ecause dads have invested less in their child
they prefer to have a higher chance to get their genes into the next generaton (reproducton). ads
use the ‘love them and leave them strategy’.
These diferent strategies encourage females to have diferent mate preferences. Women are
interested in commited and high status mates ecause they nill more likely invest in potental
ofspring and can provide resources for possi le future children. In additon nomen nant to fnd the
est second genes they can fnd.
Men are likely to e more interested in youth and eauty in a mate ecause these indicate the a ility
to ear children. Males are also interested in faithful females as they don’t nant to e investng in
someone else’s child.
Impliecations of nender asymmetry: Sex diefferences ien mate choiece and famiely roles
A norm is nhat is expected or typical in a partcular circumstance. Women are ofen more interested
in the fnancial prospects the male can ring as she ofen cannot provide these herself. Men are
more interested in the physical eauty of the female. Men prefer younger mates nhereas nomen
prefer older mates.
Women have stronger psychological tes inding them to their children than men. In all human
societes nomen have the primary responsi ility for the care of their children. The diferent male
and female psychologies mean that fathers and mothers play a diferent social and emotonal role in
the family. A role is the set of typical ehaviours expected of a person in a partcular social positon.
The mother is ofen more involved and narmer nhereas the father spends less tme and is cooler.
Indieviedual diefferences
The paters and norms ne talked a out nere on average. There are diferences on an individual level.
People difer in personality characteristcs and have their onn preferences and ehaviour. Some of
the diferences are ased on genetcs and others on environment (family, school).
,Study of identcal tnins shons that many social ehaviours are inluenced y genes. It is not
necessary that you ehave in a nay nhen you have the genes predisposing you to one of those
ehaviours ut you are more likely to.
Hormones and behavieour
Hormones also inluence ehaviour. They are important regulators of some iological processes. The
neurohormone oxytocin for example. This hormone causes the onding etneen mothers and
infants (zuigelingen). Changing levels of hormones has consequuences. or example higher level of
testosterone causes individuals to have a higher spatal a ility (the a ility to rotate o jects in one’s
head).
The iemportance of the sietuation
All human predispositons (aanleg) nork in conjuncton nith environmental conditons. Thus,
although mothers are generally devoted to their children, there are situatons in nhich they kill their
onn children. This happened in huntng and gathering groups nhen the second child nas orn too
quuick afer the frst. The mother could not feed or care for tno children nhich could result in tno
children dying.
Predispositons nork in diferent directons and people have to make choices a out the est nay to
go.
Other evolved prediesposietions
Other predispositons related to sociology include predispositons tonard religion and magic,
ethnocentrism, male sexual jealousy, violent aggression in males and deference ehaviour in
females.
As all the other discussed predispositons, these nork in conjuncton nith environmental conditons
and social context of the individual.
Relienieon and maniec
Many elieve that ne have innate predispositons tonard religious eliefs and ehaviour. Religious
eliefs are universal and important to understanding human social ehaviour. In many societes
religion is the central to the operaton of society. In others, religion is less important.
Dieslieke of out nroups and ethnocentriesm
Human history is full of conlicts etneen groups. People in an in-group are likely to intermarry in
future and past and more likely to e related. This nas the case nhen groups nere small and
consisted of mostly related people. By favouring mem ers of the in-group a person is favouring those
nho likely share their genes. This leads to a higher chance of reproducton. Given this, it is likely that
all people have an innate tendency to e ethnocentric. Kin group favourism.
Male sexual jealousy
Male monitoring the sexual ehaviour of their mates is ofen displayed as sexual jealousy. In all
cultures men are more likely to e sexually jealous than nomen. These tendencies relect the
diferent reproductve interests of men and nomen nith men eing most concerned that their
partners e faithful and nomen eing most concerned that their partners not a andon them.
Relatves of the man are also interested in his nife’s sexual ehaviour to make sure their genes are
eing reproduced. Therefore the man’s relatves are helping monitoring sexual ehaviour of the nife.
, Also the noman’s relatve help monitoring her sexual ehaviour so that the noman is not deprived of
the hus and’s support.
The human species shons a greater oppression of females than other species. or example in
situatons in nhich ofspring ecame more important and in higher num ers as in pre-modern,
agricultural societes. The nife had to live nith the hus and’s family. The noman is in this case also
deprived of the support from her onn relatves and family.
In societes nith great economic inequuality oppression occurs ofen too as males have most invested
in children(e.g. equuests of property and positon) and more to lose if those investments are
misplaced. These lead to a great variety of practces to create male control and female
su ordinaton(ondergeschiktheid).
Another consequuence of male jealousy is male discomfort nith nives nho have greater status and
resources than themselves. Instead of a threat to the male’s ego it may e a threat to the male’s
reproductve interests as a noman might fnd a man nith a higher status. In additon she is less
dependent so less controlla le.
Vieolent annressieon ien males|
Male sexual jealousy frequuently fuels nife a use and nife eatng. Wife killing typically occurs just
afer the noman has lef the man. ooung nives are more likely to e a victm ecause they are the
most reproductvely valua le. Hus ands are most at risk of losing them to other men.
Though, most male violent is aimed at other men. Ofen the man is atemptng to defend his honour
as they express their aggression violently. Violence can e seen as a risky nay of o taining status and
resources nhen there is no possi ility for a less risky method. This causes a lot of violence among the
young, unemployed and lon socio economic status. Married, aged out and employed men are much
less likely to e violent.
Violence among males is likely to e an predispositon.
1. Male hormone testosterone is implicated in violence
2. O taining status and resources is essental in fnding a mate
Deference (eerbieed)behavieour
emale deference to males and lack of male deference to females is likely an evolved predispositon.
emale deference nould have advertsed youth and controlla ility so that females could fnd higher
status long term mates.
Male lack of deference nould have signalled high status so that males could fnd higher quuality
females.
The status of nomen increases nhen they are past child earing age.
Free wiell and the naturaliestic fallacy
It is important to avoid the naturalistc fallacy(that is, if it is natural then it has to e good) nhen
discussing predispositons. Like eatng sneets, fats and salts or distant parentng for fathers.
