CHAPTER 1 INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology:
● The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes
● Considered as a science because it uses the scientific method
○ Minimizes biases, preconceptions, personal beliefs, and emotions
4 Goals of Psychology
● Description: Understanding any behaviour or mental processes
○ More importantly in a new area of research or the early stages
○ Must take accurate notes
● Explanation: Understanding of the condition under which a given behaviour or mental process
occurs
○ Understands the why
○ Do not reach the goal until all results have been tested retested and confirmed
● Prediction: When a behaviour is likely to occur
○ Can predict the behaviour or event
● Influence: Researchers know how to apply a principle or change a condition to prevent unwanted
occurrences or to bring desired outcomes
Theory
● A general principle or a set of principles that explains how several separate facts are related to
one another
○ Attempt to explain why something happens
■ It enables researchers to fit many separate facts into a larger framework
● Theory serves two important functions:
○ 1. Organizes facts
■ A necessary step toward arriving at a systematic body of knowledge
○ 2. Guides research
● Good theory provides an explanation that is clear, comprehensive, explicit, simple and falsifiable
Basic and Applied Research
● Basic Research: Research conducted to advance knowledge rather than for its practical
application
○ Description, Explanation, and Prediction
○ Nature of memory, brain functions, motivation
● Applied Research: Research conducted to solve practical problems
○ Concerned with 4-goal Influence
○ Mental disorders, decrease stress
,Descriptive Research Method
● Research methods that yield a description of behaviour rather than a casual explanation
○ The goal is not to identify causes of behaviour but to describe a behaviour
■ E.g Naturalistic Observation, Laboratory observation, case study, survey
Naturalistic Observation:
● Research method in which researchers observe and record behaviour without trying to influence
or control it
● One way mirror
● Allows behaviour to occur more naturally and spontaneously
Laboratory Observation:
● Takes place in a laboratory
● Researchers have more control over the environment limiting the effect of unexpected factors
● Disadvantage can be the loss of spontaneity that occurs
○ Because it is not in a natural setting
Case Study:
● In-depth study of one or a few participants consisting of information gathered through
observation, interviews and perhaps psychological testing
○ It consists of observation interviews and sometimes psychological testing
○ The purpose is to provide a detailed description of some behaviour or disorder
○ Disadvantage cannot establish the cause of observed behaviours
Survey:
● Researchers use interviews or questionnaires to gather information about the attitudes, beliefs,
experiences, or behaviours of a group of people
● Representative Sample: Participants were selected from the larger population in such a way that
important subgroups within the population are included sample in the same proportion as they
are found in larger populations
● The disadvantage of providing inaccurate information, or false information to please
Correlation Method:
● Research method used to establish the relationship (Correlation) between two characteristics,
events, or behaviours
○ Measure 2 variables with accuracy and apply statistical formulate to obtain the
correlation
Correlation Coefficient:
● Numerical value that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two
variables; ranges from +1.00 (Perfect positive correlation) to -1.00(Perfect negative correlation)
○ A negative correlation can be seen as a see-saw, when one is up one goes down
● Correlations are useful when making predictions, the stronger the relationship between the
variables better the prediction
● Can’t draw cause-and-effect conclusions when looking at correlations
,Experimental Method
● Researchers randomly assign participants to groups and control all conditions other than one or more
independent variables, which are then manipulated to determine their effect on some behaviour being
measured- the dependent variable in an experiment
○ The only research method used to identify cause-and-effect relationships
● Usually designed to test a hypothesis
Independent and dependent Variable
● Independent Variable: Factors or conditions that the researcher manipulates to determine their effect
on another behaviour or condition known as dependent variable
○ Referred to as the treatment
● Dependent Variable: A variable which is measured at the end of an experiment and is presumed to
vary as a result of manipulation of the independent variable
○ Depend on or to be affected by changes in the independent
Experimental and Control Groups
● Experimental group: Group which is exposed to the independent variable or treatment
● Control Group: Similar to the experimental group but not given the treatment; used for the purpose of
comparison
○ The more control in the research the more unnatural the research becomes
Problems in Experimental Research
● Selection Bias: Occurs when participants are assigned to groups in such a way that systematic
differences among the groups are present at the beginning of the experiment
○ Socioeconomic class
○ To overcome this researches use Random Assignment:
■ Assign participants through chance procedure guarantees that all participants are
qual
● Placebo Effect: A person’s response to treatment is due to expectations regarding the treatment
rather than to the treatment itself
○ The patient tries to live up to the expectation
○ Given Placebo:
■ Harmless substances like sugar pills or injections of saline solution
■ Researchers don’t let participants know which group they are in
● Experimenter Bias: Researcher preconceived notions in some way influence the participant's
behaviour or the interpretation of the experimental result
○ To overcome the bias researchers use Double Blind Technique
■ Neither the participant nor the experiments know who is in the experimental and
control group until the end of the research
■ Most powerful for studying the cause and effect in a relationship
● Reliability: The ability of a test to yield nearly the same scores when the same people are tested
and retested
● Validity: Ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure
, Titchener did structuralism and James studied functionalism
Darwin's theory of natural selection strongly influenced functionalists' belief in the important function of
consciousness.
A behaviourist would argue that psychology should be involved only in the study of observable events
The biopsychosocial perspective emphasizes the combined role of social, psychological, and
biological factors and not the unique contribution of each factor.
Cognitive: More about how
Psychoanalysis: Freud used research methods like case study
Humanistic Psychology: human being and their Choice for growth psychological health
CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR
Neurons: Specialized cells that conduct impulses through the nervous system and contain three
major parts:
● Cell body
● Dendrites
● Axon
● Cells perform several important tasks
○ Afferent (Sensory) neurons
■ Relay messages from the sense organs and receptors to the brain or spinal
cord
● Eyes, Ears, Nose, Mouth, and Skin
○ Efferent (Motor) neurons
■ Signals from the brain and spinal cord to the glands and muscles
● Enable us to move
○ Interneurons
■ Thousands of times more numerous than sensory or motor neurons
● Carry information between neurons in the brain and between
neurons in the spinal cord
Psychology:
● The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes
● Considered as a science because it uses the scientific method
○ Minimizes biases, preconceptions, personal beliefs, and emotions
4 Goals of Psychology
● Description: Understanding any behaviour or mental processes
○ More importantly in a new area of research or the early stages
○ Must take accurate notes
● Explanation: Understanding of the condition under which a given behaviour or mental process
occurs
○ Understands the why
○ Do not reach the goal until all results have been tested retested and confirmed
● Prediction: When a behaviour is likely to occur
○ Can predict the behaviour or event
● Influence: Researchers know how to apply a principle or change a condition to prevent unwanted
occurrences or to bring desired outcomes
Theory
● A general principle or a set of principles that explains how several separate facts are related to
one another
○ Attempt to explain why something happens
■ It enables researchers to fit many separate facts into a larger framework
● Theory serves two important functions:
○ 1. Organizes facts
■ A necessary step toward arriving at a systematic body of knowledge
○ 2. Guides research
● Good theory provides an explanation that is clear, comprehensive, explicit, simple and falsifiable
Basic and Applied Research
● Basic Research: Research conducted to advance knowledge rather than for its practical
application
○ Description, Explanation, and Prediction
○ Nature of memory, brain functions, motivation
● Applied Research: Research conducted to solve practical problems
○ Concerned with 4-goal Influence
○ Mental disorders, decrease stress
,Descriptive Research Method
● Research methods that yield a description of behaviour rather than a casual explanation
○ The goal is not to identify causes of behaviour but to describe a behaviour
■ E.g Naturalistic Observation, Laboratory observation, case study, survey
Naturalistic Observation:
● Research method in which researchers observe and record behaviour without trying to influence
or control it
● One way mirror
● Allows behaviour to occur more naturally and spontaneously
Laboratory Observation:
● Takes place in a laboratory
● Researchers have more control over the environment limiting the effect of unexpected factors
● Disadvantage can be the loss of spontaneity that occurs
○ Because it is not in a natural setting
Case Study:
● In-depth study of one or a few participants consisting of information gathered through
observation, interviews and perhaps psychological testing
○ It consists of observation interviews and sometimes psychological testing
○ The purpose is to provide a detailed description of some behaviour or disorder
○ Disadvantage cannot establish the cause of observed behaviours
Survey:
● Researchers use interviews or questionnaires to gather information about the attitudes, beliefs,
experiences, or behaviours of a group of people
● Representative Sample: Participants were selected from the larger population in such a way that
important subgroups within the population are included sample in the same proportion as they
are found in larger populations
● The disadvantage of providing inaccurate information, or false information to please
Correlation Method:
● Research method used to establish the relationship (Correlation) between two characteristics,
events, or behaviours
○ Measure 2 variables with accuracy and apply statistical formulate to obtain the
correlation
Correlation Coefficient:
● Numerical value that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two
variables; ranges from +1.00 (Perfect positive correlation) to -1.00(Perfect negative correlation)
○ A negative correlation can be seen as a see-saw, when one is up one goes down
● Correlations are useful when making predictions, the stronger the relationship between the
variables better the prediction
● Can’t draw cause-and-effect conclusions when looking at correlations
,Experimental Method
● Researchers randomly assign participants to groups and control all conditions other than one or more
independent variables, which are then manipulated to determine their effect on some behaviour being
measured- the dependent variable in an experiment
○ The only research method used to identify cause-and-effect relationships
● Usually designed to test a hypothesis
Independent and dependent Variable
● Independent Variable: Factors or conditions that the researcher manipulates to determine their effect
on another behaviour or condition known as dependent variable
○ Referred to as the treatment
● Dependent Variable: A variable which is measured at the end of an experiment and is presumed to
vary as a result of manipulation of the independent variable
○ Depend on or to be affected by changes in the independent
Experimental and Control Groups
● Experimental group: Group which is exposed to the independent variable or treatment
● Control Group: Similar to the experimental group but not given the treatment; used for the purpose of
comparison
○ The more control in the research the more unnatural the research becomes
Problems in Experimental Research
● Selection Bias: Occurs when participants are assigned to groups in such a way that systematic
differences among the groups are present at the beginning of the experiment
○ Socioeconomic class
○ To overcome this researches use Random Assignment:
■ Assign participants through chance procedure guarantees that all participants are
qual
● Placebo Effect: A person’s response to treatment is due to expectations regarding the treatment
rather than to the treatment itself
○ The patient tries to live up to the expectation
○ Given Placebo:
■ Harmless substances like sugar pills or injections of saline solution
■ Researchers don’t let participants know which group they are in
● Experimenter Bias: Researcher preconceived notions in some way influence the participant's
behaviour or the interpretation of the experimental result
○ To overcome the bias researchers use Double Blind Technique
■ Neither the participant nor the experiments know who is in the experimental and
control group until the end of the research
■ Most powerful for studying the cause and effect in a relationship
● Reliability: The ability of a test to yield nearly the same scores when the same people are tested
and retested
● Validity: Ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure
, Titchener did structuralism and James studied functionalism
Darwin's theory of natural selection strongly influenced functionalists' belief in the important function of
consciousness.
A behaviourist would argue that psychology should be involved only in the study of observable events
The biopsychosocial perspective emphasizes the combined role of social, psychological, and
biological factors and not the unique contribution of each factor.
Cognitive: More about how
Psychoanalysis: Freud used research methods like case study
Humanistic Psychology: human being and their Choice for growth psychological health
CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR
Neurons: Specialized cells that conduct impulses through the nervous system and contain three
major parts:
● Cell body
● Dendrites
● Axon
● Cells perform several important tasks
○ Afferent (Sensory) neurons
■ Relay messages from the sense organs and receptors to the brain or spinal
cord
● Eyes, Ears, Nose, Mouth, and Skin
○ Efferent (Motor) neurons
■ Signals from the brain and spinal cord to the glands and muscles
● Enable us to move
○ Interneurons
■ Thousands of times more numerous than sensory or motor neurons
● Carry information between neurons in the brain and between
neurons in the spinal cord
