DVA2601 - Combined Tut201 Letters () DVA2601 Combined Tut201 Letters

DVA2601 - Combined Tut201 Letters () DVA2601 Combined Tut201 Letters Assignment Memo () DVA2601/202/3/2021 Tutorial Letter 202/3/2021 Projects and Programmes as Instruments of Development DVA2601 Semester 1 & 2 Department of Development Studies General approach to essay writing Each assignment requires that you write an introduction in which you unpack the question by providing your interpretation and a brief outline of how you are going to approach the question. Each paragraph ought to explain a point/fact that addresses the question. You should support your points with reference to literature and where necessary give examples. You should not have a paragraph that only explains an example as examples alone are not an answer. Your essay should end with a conclusion where you sum up the points that you discussed in the essay. You may not discuss any new issues in your conclusion. Make it short and to the point. Always start by reading the prescribed material to form an understanding of the content and make notes on the relevant information to answer the essay question. You may use additional sources in your essay. Please ensure that you provide references for all the sources you use. Below are the guidelines to questions 2-7. How to approach the question Start by consulting the prescribed material to form an understanding of the content. In your introduction, unpack how you have chosen to address the question, and if you like, add the steps that you are going to follow to address the question. The study unit takes Conyers and Hills’ project planning process as the starting point before moving on to MacArthur’s “project sequence”. It then turns to the participatory project management cycle. This cycle is discussed in the article in the Hart et al article using two case studies. To do well in this assignment you must show the similarities and differences between the three project cycles: 2 DVA2601/202 • the traditional project cycle • MacArthur’s project sequence • participatory project management cycle The goal of all project cycles irrespective of the name they go by, is to achieve one objective which is realising their goals, objectives and the activities of a project (Hart et al). The differences lie in the way they go about it. The traditional project cycle has a straight forward way of doing it with its seven fixed phases (pages 10-11 of Study guide). MacArthur prefers to call his model a sequence as it does not follow a strict route. MacArthur’s sequence for instance allows for exit routes when projects fail to move from one stage to the next. The participatory project management cycle is different from the other two in that it takes into consideration aspects of human involvement in the project for example gender or the environmental impact of the project and also encourages stakeholder participation. A possible study strategy is to briefly discuss the project cycle, MacArthur’s project sequence then the participatory project management cycle without going into detail about the different phases. Note that the phases of the models should only be part of your discussion if they show similarities or differences between the models. The next step will be to show the differences and the similarities between the three. The study guide has outlined how MacArthur’s sequence is different to Conyers and Hill’s model. Take note to acknowledge that this has already been noted and it is not your discovery; this will help you avoid losing marks for plagiarism. In the second part of your discussion, you are supposed to explain which one of these models is conducive to learning. To get this part right you should be clear for whom the learning is intended for. The primary function of the project cycle is to provide structure and direction to development activities at the same time as allowing for key objectives and issues to remain in focus. The traditional project cycle and the sequence model can be applied to any type of development project. In contrast, the participatory management cycle was designed to cope specifically with participatory projects. Read the article by Hart et al to familiarise yourself with this model. The appeal of the cyclic models is to promote learning from experience and reflection. The article by Lane shows that participation is determined by the type of planning model used. Lane does not view participation as a given, he expresses that participation is determined by many variables e.g. the kinds of knowledge used in planning practice. Note that the traditional cycle and McArthur’s sequence are blueprint models. As such, their rigid nature does not allow learning to take place. You should however point out that McArthur allows for entry points and exit points during the cycle which makes the model not as rigid as other blueprints where new ideas can only be incorporated in a new cycle. Mark Allocation: 0% – 49%: An essay that receives 0% means that you have copied from the study guide or any other source, such as an internet source. Any form of copying and pasting does not demonstrate understanding of the question and, therefore, will receive 0%. If you obtained a 3 mark of 49% and below, you did not reference correctly or consistently, there was evidence of plagiarism in your essay and/or you did not answer the question. 50% – 59%: This mark will be assigned if your essay shows a basic understanding of the question. You have also shown correct and consistent application of referencing and citation techniques. 60% – 74%: You will receive a mark in this range if you have done all of the above and your answer shows that you have clearly understood the concepts discussed in the essay and provided relevant examples to demonstrate your understanding. 75% and higher: A distinction will be given to an assignment that does all the above and in addition your answer needs to demonstrate that you have engaged critically with the material. Your answer must also reflect independent thought. How to approach the question Start by reading the prescribed sources attentively and noting the two approaches to project planning. Dedicate the first part of your answer to explaining the differences between directive or blueprint planning and interactive or adaptive planning and describing the type of projects that each approach is typically used for. The directive or blueprint approach to project planning means that plans are drawn before the start of a project. The models within this approach set up the strategies and objectives way in advance because they assume that the project environment is known from the onset, stable and predictable. Such models see little, or no additional knowledge being required to make projects work once they commence. Examples of such models include MacArthur’s project sequence, the traditional project cycle as well as the logframe. The type of projects that this approach is typically used for is those involving large scale physical infrastructure. For example, a national dam project. 4 DVA2601/202 The directive approach is different from the adaptive or interactive approach to project planning. This approach is based on the premise of uncertainty where knowledge is obtained as the project proceed because there is a realisation that conditions, problems, and solutions can never be known at the beginning of the project. Within this approach frequent modifications to project plans are made as learning occurs. This approach is typically used in small scale local development initiative projects. The second part of your answer should be dedicated to discussing the disadvantages or constraints of rigid or blueprint planning against the advantages or strengths of the interactive or adaptive planning model. A major critique of blueprints is that they do not allow for the conditions in which typical projects are undertaken (neglect the project environment). In fact, blueprint models are often seen as imposing western principles through imposing knowledge on local project environments. Refer to table 2.2 in your study guide which gives two examples depicting the failure of blueprint projects in the Chad-Cameroon pipeline project and South Africa’s Medupi coal plant project. Consider some of the critiques of the logframe as mentioned by Pasteur (2001) on pages 25-26 of your study guide. The article by Aune (2000) which proposes a method on how to combine the Logical Framework Approach (LFA) with Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) will further aid your discussion. For many, scholars like Rondinelli (1983: viii), the problems accompanying the blueprint planning approach can be decreased by using ‘‘... an adaptive approach that relies on adjunctive and strategic planning, on administrative procedures that facilitate innovation, responsiveness and experimentation, and on decision-making processes that join learning with action’’. Here the main advantage of interactive planning which acknowledges local contexts and knowledge as important when formulating and modifying projects is highlighted. Likewise, Chambers talks about ‘handing over the stick (page 31 of your study guide)’. Similarly, the Afrocentrism of decoloniality scholarship and rights-based development also pursue project plans that promote local learning. The article by Ika (2012), which shows how project management tools and approaches in International Development (ID) need to be tailored for Africa’s cultural context will further aid your discussion. You can further draw insights from the article by Nel (2001), which investigates the application of a project management approach as a tool for implementing development projects at the local government level. While bearing in mind the advantages or strengths of the interactive or adaptive approach to project planning, the last part of the question requires that you identify the weaknesses of this approach and show how this approach can be strengthened. For some, (i.e. Teddy Brett-one of Chambers hardest critics) the interactive planning approach is overly idealistic. For this reason, such an approach is incapable of dealing with the total scope required for development. Another major critique of this approach for some, is that while it places a great deal of emphasis on learning, in reality very little learning is perceived as taking place. In your essay you can reflect on why this might be. Furthermore, some critics of this approach state that the same mistakes are often repeatedly made in development projects 5 therefore, either nothing is learnt or there is a continuous failure to share best practices to improve new projects. Mark allocation 0% – 49%: An essay that receives 0% means that you have copied your entire essay from the study guide or any other source, such as an internet source. Any form of copying and pasting does not demonstrate understanding of the question and, therefore, will receive 0%. If you obtained a mark of 49% and below: you did not reference correctly or consistently, there was evidence of plagiarism in your essay and/or you did not answer the essay question. 50% – 59%: A mark in this range is allocated if your essay shows a basic understanding of the question. You would have also shown correct, and consistent application of referencing and citation techniques. 60% – 74%: You will receive a mark in this range if you have done all of the above and your answer shows that you have clearly understood the concepts discussed in the essay and provided relevant examples to demonstrate understanding. 75% and higher: A distinction will be given to an assignment that does all the above and in addition your answer needs to demonstrate that you have engaged critically with the material. Your answer must also reflect independent thought. How to address the question Defining indigenous knowledge Some of the definitions of indigenous knowledge are provided in your study guide. Consult your prescribed readings as well to get other definitions and only include definitions that add to what 6 DVA2601/202 other scholars would have said, not similar ones. Indigenous knowledge is understood as referring to all forms of skills, beliefs, practices, technologies and know-how skills that local people, in a particular context, use to achieve stable livelihoods in that specific environment. Differences between indigenous and western knowledge You should highlight the facts that: • Indigenous knowledge originated and was developed from the lived experiences of a community (local, rural or urban people, be it women, men, children or old people or members of organizations or groups). It is a result of many years of use by local peoples who pass it on orally from one generation to the next. Indigenous knowledge does not assume universality hence it is also known as local knowledge. • Furthermore, indigenous knowledge occupies a centre stage in development because it is not only home-grown solutions to local problems, but is founded in lived experiences, gained through the need for survival. It is therefore contextually based (geographical, cultural, social, political, etc) and cannot be transferable from one context to the other. • Western knowledge, as the name implies, is knowledge from the west which is assumed to have universal relevance. It is passed on through the written word – in what are called scientific journals. • In comparison to the indigenous knowledges, which have been perceived as primitive, the western knowledges, on the other hand, have been elevated to prominence as they have been exemplified as scientific and technological, (Magaisa in Dube et al. 2019:40). The significance of indigenous knowledge as a source of data You should then indicate the significance of indigenous knowledge as a source of data and emphasise the points, among others, that: • To find the local solutions to local problems implies that information must be collected locally, sorted, catalogued, and interpreted within the local contexts. • Because the one-size-fits-all approaches to development from foreign advisors are not always effective, focus on local knowledge plays an important role in development projects as more currency is now being placed on indigenous knowledge for its contextuality. • Development agencies can learn a lot from the poor, the illiterate, or those who live in remote areas because they can be a source of useful information because they have learned to survive within the prevailing environment using only local resources, such as local networks of production, barter, and mutual support (social capitals). • The technocratic approach to development ignores the role of people's emotions in development, and according to Edwards (in Dube et al. 2019:41), research was being conducted outside of the ordinary setting in which knowledge of these emotions can develop. However, appreciation for genuine, everyday problems will be impossible unless this context is understood. • According to Apusigah (2011:13), the development agency has finally realised, after decades of vilification, that cultural values have a place in development and that indigenous peoples' distinct ways of life offer solutions to today's world's problems. 7 When considering the value of acknowledging and including local and IK, also take note of the following: • People should take ownership of their development. • Empowerment cannot be achieved by imparting external knowledge, but must be grounded in local understanding. • People are participants and stakeholders in their own development and not merely spectators. • The social justice perspective which holds that humans have the right to be involved in their own development. • People’s feelings, perceptions and experiences are important sources of information. • IKS as sources of information enhance the process of enrichment, recognition of the power of the people and active participation. • Indigenous networks of production, barter and mutual support, which have evolved over centuries, form the basis of development and contribute to sustainability of development efforts. You should also provide your own examples to illustrate the role of local indigenous knowledge in development projects. Identification of two participatory data collection methods and how they enhance the use of indigenous knowledge The last part of the assignment requires you to discuss any two participatory methods used to integrate indigenous knowledge in community development. You should identify two participatory data collection methods among: (i) PRA [Participatory Rural appraisal], (ii) SARAR [Self-esteem Associative Strength Resourcefulness Action Planning Responsibility], (iii) Beneficiary Assessment (BA) and (iv) Focus Group Discussions, and then explain how they enhance the use of indigenous knowledge. Mark Allocation: 0% – 49%: An essay that receives 0% means that you have copied your entire essay from the study guide or any other source, such as an internet source. Any form of copying and pasting does not demonstrate understanding of the question and, therefore, will receive 0%. If you obtained a mark of 49% and below, you did not reference correctly or consistently, there was evidence of plagiarism in your essay and/or you did not answer the essay question. 50% – 59%: A mark in this range is allocated if your essay shows a basic understanding of the question. You would have also shown correct, and consistent application of referencing and citation techniques. 60% – 74%: You will receive a mark in this range if you have done all of the above and your answer shows that you have clearly understood the concepts discussed in the essay and provided relevant examples to demonstrate understanding. 8 DVA2601/202 75% and higher: A distinction will be given to an assignment that does all the above. In addition, your answer needs to demonstrate critical engagement with the material. Your answer must also reflect independent thought. The question requires you to apply the knowledge learnt on the importance of participation in development projects. You need to apply that understanding to the implementation of the appraisal technique, the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). The first thing you will need to do is to outline the importance of participatory approaches in project planning. Participatory development: Some of the qualities of participatory development are as below: • Stakeholder involvement is a priority at all stages of the project cycle • Decision-making is not left to experts only • Provides room for the project environment to be understood • Project managers facilitate information sharing with stakeholders Since the question is supposed to be discussed within an EIA context, you need to then define EIA and its purposes as an appraisal technique. Consult the study guide and the prescribed articles for this. The next step would then be to discuss how EIA processes are done. Briefly discuss methods for carrying out an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and explain whether these processes allow for the participation of communities. EIA is known to employ experts in its analysis, a process which excludes communities as they do not necessarily have the technical know-how for carrying out such assessments. The article by Spaling (2003) however suggests that there are ‘innovative’ ways in which EIA practices can be simplified to allow for the participation of communities. While this is only suitable for small-scale projects such as agricultural and water supply projects for example, Spaling’s article provides scope for the incorporation of participatory approaches in a process normally associated with high expert engagement only. 9 Mark allocation 0% – 49%: An essay that receives 0% means that you have copied your entire essay from the study guide or any other source, such as an internet source. Any form of copying and pasting does not demonstrate understanding of the question and, therefore, will receive 0%. If you obtained a mark of 49% and below, you did not reference correctly or consistently, there was evidence of plagiarism in your essay and/or you did not answer the essay question. 50% – 59%: A mark in this range is allocated if your essay shows a basic understanding of the question. You would have also shown correct, and consistent application of referencing and citation techniques. 60% – 74%: You will receive a mark in this range if you have done all of the above and your answer shows that you have clearly understood the concepts discussed in the essay and provided relevant examples to demonstrate understanding. 75% and above: A distinction will be given to an assignment that does all of the above and in addition your answer needs to demonstrate that you have engaged critically with the material. Your answer must also reflect independent thought. How to approach the question: Your answer should show that you understand what monitoring and evaluation are. This basic understanding of monitoring and evaluation is what explains conventional M&E. You can explain M&E as follows: Monitoring is referred to as a formative assessment that tracks the progress of a project during the project. Monitoring looks at whether project inputs are being delivered, whether the project is happening on time, within budget and up to the required standard. 10 DVA2601/202 Evaluation, which is also referred to as a summative assessment, takes place at the end of the project. Evaluation judges the projects outcomes and impacts both intended and unintended. Participatory M&E (PM&E): • Allows the community to grow by allowing the community to be part of their own development process. • Participation is at the core of PM&E. • PM&E considers the needs and the voices of the poor and marginalized people. • The participation of the people in PM&E strengthens the learning of the community members, as well as the overall accountability and effectiveness of the project. • Promotes the empowerment, confidence, self-esteem and independence of the community. It is important to highlight that participation is a central feature of PM&E and it makes use of a bottom-up approach. Conventional M&E: • Makes use of a top-down approach • There is no room for participation • Community members/ poor people are often marginalized • Leads to the imposition of development projects to the beneficiaries Challenges of PM&E PM&E can complicate projects in practice as it brings light to some of its weaknesses: • it is a time-consuming and resource-demanding process • can for example be gender-blind or gloss over wealth differences in communities, consequently reinforcing pre-existing inequalities • exerts some pressure on the community or individuals to make a change. It can be a constant battle to pay attention to different ideas, viewpoints, interests, suggestions and desires and to be aware of those who are not directly involved, visible or vocal. You can also add that in spite of these challenges, there are Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools such as resource mapping, focus group discussion, key-informant interviewing, and ranking that can be used to overcome the challenges of not all stakeholders being able to participate for various reasons. Gender-sensitive data analysis can also be used to allow the inclusion of specifically women as they are the gender that tends to shy away from public discussions. See Vernooy et al for discussion of these approaches to aid effective PM&E. Mark allocation 0% – 49%: An essay that receives 0% means that you have copied your entire essay from the study guide or any other source, such as an internet source. Any form of copying and pasting does not demonstrate understanding of the question and, therefore, will receive 0%. If you obtained a mark of 49% and below, you did not reference correctly or consistently, there was evidence of plagiarism in your essay or/and you did not answer the essay question. 11 50% – 59%: A mark in this range is allocated if your essay shows a basic understanding of the question. You would have also shown correct, and consistent application of referencing and citation techniques. 60% – 74%: You will receive a mark in this range if you have done all of the above and your answer shows that you have clearly understood the concepts discussed in the essay and provided relevant examples to demonstrate understanding. 75% and higher: A distinction will be given to an assignment that does all of the above and in addition your answer needs to demonstrate that you have engaged critically with the material. Your answer must also reflect independent thought. Question 7 Assignment 07 is structured in such a way that it covers all the units of this module. It has a set of questions which you have to answer under a single introduction, conclusion and bibliography. Substantiate your answer by giving references to acknowledge all the sources you used. Use headings and subheadings in the essay and NOT numbers. Question • Explain the participatory project management cycle and its advantages and disadvantages. • Explain the concept of blueprint planning and indicate where it can and cannot be used. • Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using participatory methods in data collection. • Discuss the advantages of carrying out environmental impact assessments (EIAs). • Define and explain conventional monitoring and evaluation. Assessment evidence:  Distinguish between the advantages and disadvantages of the participatory project management cycle.  Show understanding of the blueprint and the restrictions that come with the approach.  Explain the advantages and disadvantages that come with using participatory data collection methods.  Outline and explain the criticisms associated with the application of environmental impact assessment (EIA).  Explain the meaning and process of conventional monitoring and evaluation. How to approach the questions: The five short questions require that you write short answers in paragraph form. Your answer for the five questions should not exceed 2000 words. 12 DVA2601/202 i. Explain the participatory project management cycle and its advantages and disadvantages. The participatory project management cycle is a project planning model that provides room for stakeholder participation. It is also known as the adaptive approach. The adaptive approach provides for successive stages of experimentation, namely; • Piloting • demonstration • replication/production There is little certainty about which techniques will work in the long term for a particular country. Selected techniques are therefore applied and exposed to regular field tests after which project activities are designed in accordance with what was learnt. There should be continual dialogue between planners, implementers and the inhabitants of the area affected by the project. Advantages of the PPMC • Considers the project environment: An improvement on the typical cyclic model since it is a reflection of reality • Can be improved at different stages: • Different options are analysed before the project is designed • Places emphasis on individual projects and not the general processes • The model refers to M&E as activities that should continue throughout the establishment of a project: Monitoring is not only done at the end but throughout the whole project cycle Disadvantages of the PPMC • Model is only suitable for small-scale projects such as agricultural projects • Participation of all stakeholders is not always guaranteed as political, socio-economic and gender dynamics can constrain participation of some individuals or groups • Time consuming as it cannot be restricted to specific timelines ii. Explain the concept of blueprint planning and indicate where it can and cannot be used. Blueprint planning, also called directive planning, is where: • Detailed plans are drawn up in advance, • implementation occurs in a linear, sequential fashion. • Project decisions are taken during design and • implementation are relatively ‘pure’ and can be made in terms of a few controllable variables, usually of a quantitative nature. You can also add that, as a directive planning, blue print planning is also where: • planners make assumptions about the project environment; • local people are not involved and the local context is not considered • it is more like a top-down approach, and where communities are just recipients of development project 13 Blueprint planning is suitable for large scale projects e.g. infrastructure projects, and it is not suitable for small scale projects, such as agricultural projects. iii. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using participatory methods in data collection. Advantages of using participatory methods of data collection • Developed in response to expensive, time-consuming and staff intensive data collection methods • Participatory methods are cheaper, results are available quicker and method can be repeated often • Transfers power of the researcher to the community and is interactive Disadvantages of using participatory methods of data collection • True participation can be difficult to achieve • Barriers to participation within communities are not taken into consideration iv. Discuss the advantages of carrying out environmental impact assessments (EIAs). Explain what an environmental impact assessment (EIAs) is before discussing the advantages. Advantages of carrying out environmental impact assessments (EIAs) are: • Leads to the withdrawal of unsound projects • Lends greater legitimacy to sound projects • Is of critical importance in the final selection of a site for a project • Leads to a reformulation and reconsideration of project plans v. Define and explain conventional monitoring and evaluation. Conventional monitoring and evaluation are basic monitoring and evaluation processes of projects which is normally done by the planning team as a means of reporting to donors or supporting organisations. Conventional monitoring and evaluation: • Makes use of a top-down approach • There is no room for participation • Community members/ poor people are often marginalized. • Leads to the imposition of development projects to the beneficiaries Mark allocation 0% – 49%: An essay that receives 0% means that you have copied your entire essay from the study guide or any other source, such as an internet source. Any form of copying and pasting does not demonstrate understanding of the question and, therefore, will receive 0%. If you obtained a mark of 49% and below, you did not reference correctly or consistently, there was evidence of plagiarism in your essay or/and you did not answer the essay question. 14 DVA2601/202 50% – 59%: A mark in this range is allocated if your essay shows a basic understanding of the question. You would have also shown correct, and consistent application of referencing and citation techniques. 60% – 74%: You will receive a mark in this range if you have done all of the above and your answer shows that you have clearly understood the concepts discussed in the essay and provided relevant examples to demonstrate understanding. 75% and higher: A distinction will be given to an assignment that does all of the above and in addition your answer needs to demonstrate that you have engaged critically with the material. Your answer must also reflect independent thought. 15 DVA2601/201/1/2020 Tutorial Letter 201/1/2020 Projects and Programmes as Instruments of Development DVA2601 Semester 1 Department of Development Studies DVA2601/201 Dear Student, We trust you were able to submit assignment 1 on time. Assignment 01 covers all the units for this module. It has a set of questions which you have to answer under a single introduction, conclusion and bibliography. Start by reading the prescribed material to form an understanding of the content and make notes on the relevant information to answer the essay question. Substantiate your answer by giving references to acknowledge all the sources you used. Use headings and subheadings in the essay and NOT numbers. Question 1- Short essay type questions Question 1 consists of the following five short questions. Answer all. • Explain the relationship between plans, policies, programmes and projects. • Discuss the concept of a project management cycle and outline the issue of opportunities for participation in a project management cycle. • Identify and clarify which participatory data collection techniques can be used to enhance local and indigenous knowledge as an information source. • Describe how SIA came to be used in South Africa and how its use can be improved. • Explain the need and importance for participation in monitoring and evaluation. Assessment evidence: • Demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between plans, policies, programmes and projects. • Explain the project management cycle and discuss whether there is potential for participation in the planning model. • Identify and explain participatory data collection techniques. • Demonstrate an understanding of the use social impact assessment (SIA) and its problems in South Africa. • Explain participatory monitoring and evaluation and its advantages. Readings: • Study guide: Units 1 – 5 • E-reserves: Relevant articles 2 DVA2601/201 How to approach the question Start by consulting the prescribed material to form an understanding of the content. In your introduction, unpack how you have chosen to address the question, and if you like, add the steps that you are going to follow to address the question. You can use the following ideas to address the different questions: Relationship between plans, policies, programmes and projects To explain the relationship between plans, policies, programmes and projects, note that the four concepts are intertwined such that one cannot exist without the other and influence each other. You can use the definitions of the concepts below to describe how the development process takes place using these four concepts. At the top, outside of these 4 concepts, you have a vision, which gets translated into policy->policy are turned into plans where specific details are pronounced- resulting in broad or specific targeted ways of dealing with the development agenda, that is, a programme (broad) or a project (specific). • Plans explain the vision and goals of government in terms of development; thus the end-goal that an institution, government or organization wishes to achieve. • Policies are legal frameworks that give authority to do things in pursuit of the vision and goals set. A policy deals with different aspects of the vision e.g. health/education. For a plan to come to life, policies must be in place. Policies tend to be more detailed and more specific than the plan. • Programmes have a broad scope in terms of space and time; they can be regional or global and they take place over a broad timeframe. • Projects have specific locations, objectives, budgets and timeframes. In essence, projects are smaller in scope and are used to achieve development programme objectives. • Programmes and projects are similar in that they are the two most important tools and/or instruments of development and involve activities that seek to change and improve people’s lives. 3 DVA2601/201 Note that if you were to arrange this in a hierarchical order, starting with the developmental process that takes place first, you will have the policy, followed by the plan, the programme and then the project at the bottom. Note however that planning takes place in all these processes, but there is a difference between a Plan and planning. The project management cycle To be able to explain what the Project Management Cycle (PMC) is, read through 1.5 of study unit 1 in the study guide. The various phases or steps through which the project passes from start to completion explain how the project management cycle works. Explain the importance that is attached to the cyclic nature of this planning model as explained in the study (page 9). Your discussion should include the following: • Linkages between phases created by the cyclic model • It is a useful tool which serves an analytical role • It is used in blueprint or top-down projects for the purposes of planning, implementation and evaluation Despite its use for large projects, the cyclic, logical order of the phases creates the framework’s shortcomings. Discuss the lack of participation in the PMC. You can include the following points: • It is mostly used for large projects and allows little community participation, (study guide, page 11) • It is an example of a blueprint model, its designs, implementation and evaluation are top-down Participatory data collection techniques for indigenous knowledge Explain what indigenous knowledge is and why it is important that data be collected using participatory methods. Then briefly explain the principles of participatory methodologies (page 48 of your study guide). Identify three or four participatory data collection techniques identifying their differences or similarities, their advantages and disadvantages. You can discuss Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), SARAR and also consider how Beneficiary Assessment can be used in a focus group context. 4 DVA2601/201 How SIA came to be used in South Africa and how it ought to be improved Briefly explain what SIA is used for and how it has been used in South Africa as an extension of the Environmental Impact Assessment. Your recommendations for improvement should be based on the knowledge of the problems such as the lack of expertise in the social sciences. Read Du Pisani and Sandham (2006) to address this question. Participatory monitoring and evaluation and its advantages Explain what participatory monitoring and evaluation is and what it entails. Then explain its advantages. You can use some of the points below: • Participation is at the core of PM&E • PM&E considers the needs and the voices of the poor and marginalized people. • The participation of the people in PM&E strengthens the learning of the community members, as well as the overall accountability and effectiveness of the project. • Promotes the empowerment, confidence, self-esteem and independence of the community • It is important to highlight that participation is a central feature of PM&E and it makes use of a bottom-up approach. Mark Allocation: 0% – 49%: An essay that receives 0% means that you have copied from the study guide or any other source, such as an internet source. Any form of copying and pasting does not demonstrate understanding of the question and, therefore, will receive 0%. If you obtained a mark of 49% and below, you did not reference correctly or consistently, there was evidence of plagiarism in your essay and/or you did not answer the question. 50% - 59%: This mark will be assigned if your essay shows a basic understanding of the question. You have also showed correct and consistent application of referencing and citation techniques. 5 DVA2601/201 60% - 74%: You will receive a mark in this range if you have done all of the above and your answer shows that you have clearly understood the concepts discussed in the essay and provided relevant examples to display understanding. 75% and higher: A distinction will be given to an assignment that does all the above and in addition your answer needs to demonstrate that you have engaged critically with the material. Your answer must also reflect independent thought. 6 DVA2601/202/1/2020 Tutorial Letter 202/1/2020 Projects and Programmes as Instruments of Development DVA2601 Semester 1 Department of Development Studies DVA2601/202 How to approach the question Start by consulting the prescribed material to form an understanding of the content. In your introduction, unpack how you have chosen to address the question, and if you like, add the steps that you are going to follow to address the question. The study unit takes Conyers and Hills’ project planning process as the starting point before moving on to MacArthur’s “project sequence”. It then turns to the participatory project management cycle. This cycle is discussed in the article in the Hart et al article using two case studies. To do well in this assignment you must show the similarities and differences between the three project cycles: • the traditional project cycle • MacArthur’s project sequence • participatory project management cycle 2 DVA2601/202 The goal of all project cycles irrespective of the name they go by, is to achieve one objective which is realising their goals, objectives and the activities of a project (Hart et al). The differences lie in the way they go about it. The traditional project cycle has a straight forward way of doing it with its seven fixed phases (pages 10-11 of Study guide). MacArthur prefers to call his model a sequence as it does not follow a strict route. MacArthur’s sequence for instance allows for exit routes when projects fail to move from one stage to the next. The participatory project management cycle is different from the other two in that it takes into consideration aspects of human involvement in the project for example gender or the environmental impact of the project and also encourages stakeholder participation. A possible study strategy is to briefly discuss the project cycle, MacArthur’s project sequence then the participatory project management cycle without going into detail about the different phases. Note that the phases of the models should only be part of your discussion if they show similarities or differences between the models. The next step will be to show the differences and the similarities between the three. The study guide has outlined how MacArthur’s sequence is different to Conyers and Hill’s model. Take note to acknowledge that this has already been noted and it is not your discovery; this will help you avoid losing marks for plagiarism. In the second part of your discussion you are supposed to explain which one of these models is conducive to learning. To get this part right you should be clear for whom the learning is intended for. The primary function of the project cycle is to provide structure and direction to development activities at the same time as allowing for key objectives and issues to remain in focus. The traditional project cycle and the sequence model can be applied to any type of development project. In contrast, the participatory management cycle was designed to cope specifically with participatory projects. Read the article by Hart et al to familiarise yourself with this model. The appeal of the cyclic models is to promote learning from experience and reflection. The article by Lane shows that participation is determined by the type of planning model used. Lane does not view participation as a given, he expresses that participation is determined by many variables e.g. the kinds of knowledge used in planning practice. Note that the traditional cycle and McArthur’s sequence are blueprint models. As such, their rigid nature does not allow learning to take place. You should however point out that McArthur allows for 3 DVA2601/202 entry points and exit points during the cycle which makes the model not as rigid as other blueprints where new ideas can only be incorporated in a new cycle. Mark Allocation: 0% – 49%: An essay that receives 0% means that you have copied from the study guide or any other source, such as an internet source. Any form of copying and pasting does not demonstrate understanding of the question and, therefore, will receive 0%. If you obtained a mark of 49% and below, you did not reference correctly or consistently, there was evidence of plagiarism in your essay and/or you did not answer the question. 50% - 59%: This mark will be assigned if your essay shows a basic understanding of the three planning models and their differences and/or similarities. You have also showed correct and consistent application of referencing and citation techniques. 60% - 74%: You will receive a mark in this range if you have done all of the above and your answer shows that you have clearly understood the concepts discussed in the essay and provided relevant examples to display understanding. 75% and higher: A distinction will be given to an assignment that does all of the above and in addition an answer that demonstrates that you have engaged critically with the material. Your answer must also reflect independent thought. 4 DVA2601/202 How to approach the question To address this question, you start by distinguishing between the two planning approaches: • Directive planning, also known as blueprint planning. The drawing of Directive plans happens in advance. Little additional learning is necessary in order to make the project work. • In this approach planners make assumptions about the project environment; local people are not involved, and the local context is not considered. • Blueprint planning is useful in the planning of major physical projects that rely heavily on capital investment and take place in stable environments where the effects and impact are predictable. The failure of some projects can however be directly attributed to the inflexibility of blueprints. • Interactive planning. This is where conditions, problems and solutions are unaware of from the onset. This approach is often favoured because planners are aware that planning is incomplete before understanding the local context or environment. 5 DVA2601/202 • In this approach, planners are willing to learn prior to project execution. Furthermore, implementation is creative and experimental and requires innovative management responses. Then, you should discuss why interactive planning is more appropriate than the blueprint planning approach. The interactive approach is more appropriate because it is participatory, and it advocates for a bottom-up approach towards development as opposed to the directive top-down approach that does not allow the minorities a chance to voice their concerns. In order to ensure that development projects are sustainable, an interactive approach is the preferred option because it will represent the interests of the community members and the community will have the opportunity to participate in their development. Study the articles by Aune, Ika and Nel’s articles to strengthen your arguments. In your discussion, you need to use the case study of the World Bank funded projects in Africa as examples to support your arguments. Consult the prescribed reading to learn more about the planning models. Mark allocation 0% – 49%: An essay that receives 0% means that you have copied your entire essay from the study guide or any other source, such as an internet source. Any form of copying and pasting does not demonstrate understanding of the question and, therefore, will receive 0%. If you obtained a mark of 49% and below, you did not reference correctly or consistently, there was evidence of plagiarism in your essay and/or you did not answer the essay question. 50% - 59%: A mark in this range is allocated if your essay shows a basic understanding of the difference between interactive and directive planning. You have also showed correct and consistent application of referencing and citation techniques. 6 DVA2601/202 60% - 74%: You will receive a mark in this range if you have done all of the above and your answer shows that you have clearly understood the concepts discussed in the essay and provided relevant examples to display understanding. 75% and higher: A distinction will be given to an assignment that does all of the above and in addition an answer that demonstrates that you have engaged critically with the material. Your answer must also reflect independent thought. How to approach the question Start by consulting the prescribed material to form an understanding of the content. In your introduction, unpack how you have chosen to address the question, and if you like, add the steps that you are going to follow to address the question. To discuss the significance of indigenous knowledge, you need to first define what indigenous knowledge is. The study guide provides basic information that you need to use to understand 7 DVA2601/202 indigenous knowledge (see pages 40-42). In your explanation you should also include the differences between indigenous and western knowledge. You may also want to highlight some of the criticisms laid against indigenous knowledge by those who believe western knowledge is more scientific compared to the former. To explain the significance of indigenous knowledge, you can use the Ernesto Sirolli case study to show how important views from the local people are. Also consult Box 3.1 in your study guide to get more information about indigenous knowledge. The last part of the question requires you to identify two data collection methods and explain how they enhance indigenous knowledge use. Indigenous knowledge is best gathered using participatory data collection methods. Briefly explain the principles of participatory methodologies (page 48 of your study guide) then discuss two participatory data collection techniques explaining how they enhance indigenous knowledge use. You can discuss Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), SARAR and also consider how Beneficiary Assessment can be used in a focus group context. MARK ALLOCATION: 0% – 49%: An essay that receives 0% means that you have copied your entire essay from the study guide or any other source, such as an internet source. Any form of copying and pasting does not demonstrate understanding of the question and, therefore, will receive 0%. If you obtained a mark of 49% and below, you did not reference correctly or consistently, there was evidence of plagiarism in your essay and/or you did not answer the essay question. 50% - 59%: This mark will be assigned if your essay shows a basic understanding of the question. You have also showed correct and consistent application of referencing and citation techniques. 60% - 74%: You will receive a mark in this range if you have done all the above and your answer shows that you have clearly explained the significance of indigenous knowledge and touched on its 8 DVA2601/202 difference with western knowledge. You must also clearly indicate how the data collection methods enhance the collection of indigenous knowledge. 75% and higher: A distinction will be given to an assignment that does all of the above and in addition an answer that demonstrates that you have engaged critically with the material. Your answer must also reflect independent thought. How to approach this question For your introduction: Briefly indicate if you have a position that you have taken about environmental impact assessment being a valuable appraisal technique or not. Note that you will need to defend that position in your essay. In order to answer this question efficiently, one needs to understand and define Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and explain its purpose e.g. • It appraises the impact of development plans and projects on the physical environment 9 DVA2601/202 • It is a process of evaluating the likely environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, considering inter-related socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both beneficial and adverse • It proposes measures to adjust impacts to acceptable levels or to investigate new technological solutions. • Although an assessment may lead to difficult economic decisions and political and social concerns, it protects the environment by providing a sound basis for effective and sustainable development Note that the question focuses on the physical environment and the community. To assess if the technique is valuable, consider the method(s) used in Environmental Impact Assessment as discussed in the study guide. Discuss if the way EIA is carried out, who carries it out and the stage of the project it is done make it valuable for the physical environment and/or the community. Some criticism has been levelled against EIA – you need to briefly explain what these criticisms are. Read page 77 of the study guide for some of the criticisms and use your understanding of issues such as participation from the other study units to explain the EIA implementation challenges. Briefly discuss the nature and methods for carrying out an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and explain whether this process can be simplified for use by communities or if it always has to engage high-level expert analyst/or authorities- (National, Regional or Local authorities). If you suggest that it cannot be simplified, you would need to provide explanations and examples that substantiate your answer. To strengthen your answer, illustrate the benefits associated with EIA remaining a high-level expert analysis and problems that may result from simplifying the process. If you suggest that it can be simplified, you would need to provide explanations supported with evidence from the literature, through which this can be done. To strengthen your answer, discuss the benefits of simplifying the process and disadvantages and shortcomings of utilizing high-level expert analysis only. 10 DVA2601/202 Mark Allocation: 0% – 49%: An essay that receives 0% means that you have copied your entire essay from the study guide or any other source, such as an internet source. Any form of copying and pasting does not demonstrate understanding of the question and, therefore, will receive 0%. If you obtained a mark of 49% and below, you did not reference correctly or consistently, there was evidence of plagiarism in your essay or/and you did not answer the essay question. 50% - 59%: This mark will be assigned if your essay shows a basic understanding of the question. You have also showed correct and consistent application of referencing and citation techniques. 60% - 74%: You will receive a mark in this range if you have done all of the above and your answer shows that you have clearly understood the debate question and engaged with most of the available arguments on the debate. 75% and higher: A distinction will be given to an assignment that does all of the above and in addition an answer that demonstrates that you have engaged critically with the material. Your answer must also reflect independent thought. 11 DVA2601/202 How to approach the question Your answer should show that you understand what monitoring and evaluation are. This basic understanding of monitoring and evaluation is what explains conventional M&E. You can explain M&E as follows: Monitoring is referred to as a formative assessment that tracks the progress of a project during the project. Monitoring looks at whether project inputs are being delivered, whether the project is happening on time, within budget and up to the required standard. Evaluation, which is also referred to as a summative assessment, takes place at the end of the project. Evaluation judges the projects outcomes and impacts both intended and unintended. Participatory M&E (PM&E); • Allows the community to grow by allowing the community to be part of their own development process. • Participation is at the core of PM&E • PM&E considers the needs and the voices of the poor and marginalized people. • The participation of the people in PM&E strengthens the learning of the community members, as well as the overall accountability and effectiveness of the project. • Promotes the empowerment, confidence, self-esteem and independence of the community It is important to highlight that participation is a central feature of PM&E and it makes use of a bottom-up approach. Conventional M&E: • Makes use of a top-down approach • There is no room for participation • Community members/ poor people are often marginalized. • Leads to the imposition of development projects to the beneficiaries 12 DVA2601/202 Vernooy et al. (2006) give examples of how PM&E was used and executed. This can be used to illustrate how PM&E is used in practice showing its appropriateness for development projects. Provide examples such as ones from the YouTube video Gramya: Participatory monitoring and evaluation (PME) in UDWDP. Mark allocation 0% – 49%: An essay that receives 0% means that you have copied your entire essay from the study guide or any other source, such as an internet source. Any form of copying and pasting does not demonstrate understanding of the question and, therefore, will receive 0%. If you obtained a mark of 49% and below, you did not reference correctly or consistently, there was evidence of plagiarism in your essay or/and you did not answer the essay question. 50% - 59%: The assignment that receives a pass mark in this range is one that touches on all key issues but is largely descriptive. It shows basic understanding of the differences between M&E and PM&E. 60% - 74%: The better answer will do all the above and give sufficient reasons to support their position on why PM&E is the better approach for development projects. The answer will be coherent, and the examples integrated into the discussion. 75% and higher: A distinction will be given to an assignment that does all of the above and in addition an answer that demonstrates that you have engaged critically with the material. Your answer must also reflect independent thought. 13 DVA2601/201/1/2019 Tutorial Letter 201/1/2019 Projects and Programmes as Instruments of Development DVA2601 Semester 1 Department of Development Studies Dear Student, We trust you were able to submit assignment 1 on time. The aim of this assignment is to familiarise you with the content of the module, as well as the MyUnisa tools. The answers to the multiple-choice questions are as follows: QUESTION 1 If you read the transcript of the Sirolli interview or listen to it on the podcast, you will see that in all of the projects, active participation and involvement of the community were not achieved and the Italian NGO which employed Sirolli followed an imperialist, paternalistic (even patronising) approach. Therefore, option 3 is correct. QUESTION 2 Option 2 is correct. You had to listen to Sirolli carefully and consider all of the options. He regards the main message of Moyo’s Dead Aid as suggesting that the financial aid provided by Western donor countries to Africa (what Sirolli refers to as the rubbish dumped on the recipient countries) failed because it trapped these countries into aid dependency (two trillion American dollars in the last 50 years, according to Sirolli), and into market distortions and further poverty. QUESTION 3 Refer to Sirolli’s insight after reading “Small is Beautiful”. It shows that respect is the cornerstone of development aid. Can you see that this makes option 1 correct? Sirolli is saying that Schumacher’s view on development aid is an eye-opener because it problematizes the idea of prescriptive aid support from rich nations. QUESTION 4 Sirolli identifies a number of problems inherent to community meetings, namely that people with the necessary resources and skills do not attend community meetings. Therefore, option 2 is correct. 2 DVA2601/201 QUESTION 5 Cost-benefit analysis is a tool used for appraising economic development planning activities. This tool is used to determine whether potential investments are economically sound. Thus, option 1 is correct. QUESTION 6 Under subheading 1.3 in the study guide, a project is described as the creation of assets, systems and institutions within a specific timeframe from which continuous benefits emanate as a result. Further on, the study guide explains how a programme comprises diverse sets of activities over a long period, designed to attain certain objectives. Under subheading 1.4 in the study guide, directive project planning is defined as detailed, prior-planned blueprints for precise implementation according to pre-set steps. In the same subheading, interactive project planning, by contrast, is described as being participative, non-linear, creative and experimental in dealing with a set of interrelated problems. If you read section 1.5 in the study guide you will see that it describes the project environment in terms of the institutional, physical, social, political, economic and human factors surrounding a project and interacting with it. This makes option 1 correct. QUESTION 7 Environmental Impact Assessments prioritize the well-being of the physical environment. Decision makers may ignore this to focus on what they consider politically and economically advantageous. Therefore, option 1 is correct. QUESTION 8 Option 3 is correct. If you go to the myUnisa tabs and click on additional resources, you will have a podcast tab that will allow you to access all podcasts uploaded. QUESTION 9 Monitoring is a process whereby the progress of a project is being observed on a continuous basis while the project is taking place. Therefore, option 2 is correct. 3 QUESTION 10 The blueprint planning approach, also known as the Directive planning approach, is based on detailed plans, controllable variables and they are drawn up in advance. Thus, option 2 is correct. 4 DVA2601/202/1/2019 Tutorial Letter 202/1/2019 Projects and Programmes as Instruments of Development DVA2601 Semester 1 Department of Development Studies Assignment 2 Compare blueprint and interactive planning. Then, critically discuss why interactive planning are considered more appropriate than blueprint planning in contemporary human development projects. Use relevant examples. Readings: • Study guide: Study unit 1 • Reader: Projects and programmes as instruments of development, 2009: contribution by Nel (2001). Assessment evidence shows that you can: • Explain the relationship between plans, policies, programmes and projects. • Compare blueprint planning to interactive planning in the context of human development. • Indicate the differences between development managers who use blueprint approaches to perform their roles and the managers whose roles follow those of project facilitators. • Provide evidence of your own views in your discussion. How to approach the question: You should firstly explain the relationship between plans, policies, programmes and projects. • Plans explain the vision and goals of government in terms of development; thus the end-goal that an institution, government or organization wishes to achieve. • Policies are legal frameworks that give authority to do things in pursuit of the vision and goals set. A policy deals with different aspects of the vision e.g. health/education. For a plan to come to life, policies must be in place. Policies tend to be more detailed and more specific than the plan. • Programmes have a broad scope in terms of space and time; they can be regional or global and they take place over a broad timeframe. • Projects have specific locations, objectives, budgets and timeframes. In essence, projects are smaller in scope and are used to achieve development programme objectives. • Programmes and projects are similar in that they are the two most important tools and/or instruments of development and involve activities that seek to change and improve people’s lives. 2