African Americans
Social
- Black Codes: aimed at restricting the rights and freedoms of AA’s and maintaining
white supremacy, highlights the limitations of reconstruction efforts. Examples-
curfews on blacks, sought to establish racial discrimination, barred testifying in court,
white control over labour and economic opportunities
- Although overruled by civil rights act 1866 and 14th amendment 1868- in reality such
practices continued in the south.
- Jim Crow laws: enforced racial segregation and institutionalised discrimination
against AA’s in the south. Mandated segregation of public facilities, voting restrictions
(literacy tests, polls taxes and grandfather clauses).
- Plessy v Ferguson 1896- separate but equal
- No federal lynching bill passed by Roosevelt
- Social security act 1935- provided relief and welfare programs to Americans,
importantly included AA’s. 30% of AA’s were on benefits during GD.
- Gaines v Canada 1938- ruled that prevented a man to go to law school and paying
for his out of state education instead was unconstitutional. Beginning of stopping
school segregation.
- Browder v Gayle 1956- ruled unconstitutional to segregate bus facilities, followed
Montgomery boycott
- Brown v Board 1954- ruled against Plessy, desegregated schools and paved the way
for erosion of segregation in all other aspects of life. However, only 2% of AA’s
attended white schools 10 years following, suggesting lack of impact. Had much
opposition- White citizens council formed to prevent AA’s from joining white schools,
ROAR campaign- combat bussing (transportation of AA’s from their homes to white
schools), Little Rock nine- not able to enter school in 1957, although Eisenhower did
intervene and gave the 9 federal protection. Thus, Brown v Board clearly did not
solve struggle for racial equality, but did make marked attempts to dismantle
segregation.
- Civil rights act 1964- outlawed discrimination based on race
- Johnson's war against poverty- introduced medicare and Medicaid to provide better
health care for impoverished AA’s, built more hospitals and health care facilities,
success- black infant mortality rate dropped by half by 1970. Higher education act
1968- helped assist AA’s going to university, and primary and secondary education
act 1965- address the disparities in educational outcomes and resources in AA
communities.
Economic
- Freedmen's bureau 1865: assistance to newly freed slaves, aimed to help transition
from slavery to freedom. Established schools for AA’s- crucial role in expanding
educational opportunities. Legal aid to AA’s, ensured they could negotiate fair labour
contracts, provided medical care to AA’s in the south. However, only operated until
1872.
- 40 acres and a mule- failed federal government policy to grant AA’s land following
slavery. Johnson- redistributed land to plantation owners rather than giving it to AA’s.
- Sharecropping- left AAs in a similar position to which they started, essentially slavery.
, - Booker T- Tuskegee and NNBL
- Fair labour standards act 1938- min wage and max working hours, although excluded
agricultural and domestic work (industries in which AA’s mainly populated).
- Wagner act 1935- gave unions power to elect own representatives and collectively
bargain, however unions often excluded AA workers.
- CCC- gave work to AA’s, although often of significantly lower standard.
- Randolph- march on Washington 1941, BSCP
- WW1: increase in employment, around 200,000 were deployed (Harlem hell fighters).
- Fair employment practices commission 1941- Roosevelt ruled against discrimination
in employment based on ace.
- WW2: Double V campaign, 2.5 million registered for draft, increase in economic
opportunities, increase in activism as brought to forefront the contradictions between
America’s ideals of democracy and equality and its treatment of racial minorities.
- Civil rights act 1964- outlawed discrimination in the workplace
- Nixons affirmative action 1970s- tacked economic discrimination against AA’s,
particularly in federal agencies. Evidence of it working- Philadelphia black workers in
federal employment increased from 1% to 12%
- Housing discrimination act 1968- prohibits discrimination in the sale or rental of a
house based on race, colour, sex etc. stopped redlining.
- Johnson war against poverty: economic opportunity act 1964 (aimed at reducing
poverty and improving economic opportunities for disadvantaged Americans).
Political
- 14th, 15th amendments
- Civil rights act 1866- Johnson attempted to veto the ban on black codes.
- Civil rights act 1875- prohibited racial discrimination/segregation in public
accommodations. declared unconstitutional by 1883, so largely ineffective, indicative
of the futile attempts made during reconstruction.
- Slaughterhouse cases 1873- 14th amendment does not protect an individual's right,
doesn’t protect right to treatment under law, limited ability of 14th to prevent AA’s
from receiving poor treatment. Impact
- Enforcement acts 1870/71- combat the widespread violence and civil rights violations
carried out by KKK. Weakened significantly by US v Cruickshank 1876
- Voting restrictions imposed throughout the south- not properly prevented until voting
rights act.
- US v Cruikshank 1876- enforcement acts did not authorise the fed govt to punish
individuals for violating civil rights of others. Only allowed for federal prosecution of
states who violated constitutional rights.
- Mississippi v Williams 1898- ruled that voting restrictions were constitutional
- Smith v Allwright 1944- declared unconstitutional to restrict AA”s from voting in
primary elections, began the erosion of the voting restrictions that had impeded
ability of AA’s to use their constitutional rights.
- Voting rights act 1965- banned all methods of voting restrictions, finally allowing AA’s
to exercise their right to vote.
- Jesse Jackson- Rainbow coalition, sought to bring together all minority groups to
fight against inequalities.
- MLK- did lots for political rights.
Social
- Black Codes: aimed at restricting the rights and freedoms of AA’s and maintaining
white supremacy, highlights the limitations of reconstruction efforts. Examples-
curfews on blacks, sought to establish racial discrimination, barred testifying in court,
white control over labour and economic opportunities
- Although overruled by civil rights act 1866 and 14th amendment 1868- in reality such
practices continued in the south.
- Jim Crow laws: enforced racial segregation and institutionalised discrimination
against AA’s in the south. Mandated segregation of public facilities, voting restrictions
(literacy tests, polls taxes and grandfather clauses).
- Plessy v Ferguson 1896- separate but equal
- No federal lynching bill passed by Roosevelt
- Social security act 1935- provided relief and welfare programs to Americans,
importantly included AA’s. 30% of AA’s were on benefits during GD.
- Gaines v Canada 1938- ruled that prevented a man to go to law school and paying
for his out of state education instead was unconstitutional. Beginning of stopping
school segregation.
- Browder v Gayle 1956- ruled unconstitutional to segregate bus facilities, followed
Montgomery boycott
- Brown v Board 1954- ruled against Plessy, desegregated schools and paved the way
for erosion of segregation in all other aspects of life. However, only 2% of AA’s
attended white schools 10 years following, suggesting lack of impact. Had much
opposition- White citizens council formed to prevent AA’s from joining white schools,
ROAR campaign- combat bussing (transportation of AA’s from their homes to white
schools), Little Rock nine- not able to enter school in 1957, although Eisenhower did
intervene and gave the 9 federal protection. Thus, Brown v Board clearly did not
solve struggle for racial equality, but did make marked attempts to dismantle
segregation.
- Civil rights act 1964- outlawed discrimination based on race
- Johnson's war against poverty- introduced medicare and Medicaid to provide better
health care for impoverished AA’s, built more hospitals and health care facilities,
success- black infant mortality rate dropped by half by 1970. Higher education act
1968- helped assist AA’s going to university, and primary and secondary education
act 1965- address the disparities in educational outcomes and resources in AA
communities.
Economic
- Freedmen's bureau 1865: assistance to newly freed slaves, aimed to help transition
from slavery to freedom. Established schools for AA’s- crucial role in expanding
educational opportunities. Legal aid to AA’s, ensured they could negotiate fair labour
contracts, provided medical care to AA’s in the south. However, only operated until
1872.
- 40 acres and a mule- failed federal government policy to grant AA’s land following
slavery. Johnson- redistributed land to plantation owners rather than giving it to AA’s.
- Sharecropping- left AAs in a similar position to which they started, essentially slavery.
, - Booker T- Tuskegee and NNBL
- Fair labour standards act 1938- min wage and max working hours, although excluded
agricultural and domestic work (industries in which AA’s mainly populated).
- Wagner act 1935- gave unions power to elect own representatives and collectively
bargain, however unions often excluded AA workers.
- CCC- gave work to AA’s, although often of significantly lower standard.
- Randolph- march on Washington 1941, BSCP
- WW1: increase in employment, around 200,000 were deployed (Harlem hell fighters).
- Fair employment practices commission 1941- Roosevelt ruled against discrimination
in employment based on ace.
- WW2: Double V campaign, 2.5 million registered for draft, increase in economic
opportunities, increase in activism as brought to forefront the contradictions between
America’s ideals of democracy and equality and its treatment of racial minorities.
- Civil rights act 1964- outlawed discrimination in the workplace
- Nixons affirmative action 1970s- tacked economic discrimination against AA’s,
particularly in federal agencies. Evidence of it working- Philadelphia black workers in
federal employment increased from 1% to 12%
- Housing discrimination act 1968- prohibits discrimination in the sale or rental of a
house based on race, colour, sex etc. stopped redlining.
- Johnson war against poverty: economic opportunity act 1964 (aimed at reducing
poverty and improving economic opportunities for disadvantaged Americans).
Political
- 14th, 15th amendments
- Civil rights act 1866- Johnson attempted to veto the ban on black codes.
- Civil rights act 1875- prohibited racial discrimination/segregation in public
accommodations. declared unconstitutional by 1883, so largely ineffective, indicative
of the futile attempts made during reconstruction.
- Slaughterhouse cases 1873- 14th amendment does not protect an individual's right,
doesn’t protect right to treatment under law, limited ability of 14th to prevent AA’s
from receiving poor treatment. Impact
- Enforcement acts 1870/71- combat the widespread violence and civil rights violations
carried out by KKK. Weakened significantly by US v Cruickshank 1876
- Voting restrictions imposed throughout the south- not properly prevented until voting
rights act.
- US v Cruikshank 1876- enforcement acts did not authorise the fed govt to punish
individuals for violating civil rights of others. Only allowed for federal prosecution of
states who violated constitutional rights.
- Mississippi v Williams 1898- ruled that voting restrictions were constitutional
- Smith v Allwright 1944- declared unconstitutional to restrict AA”s from voting in
primary elections, began the erosion of the voting restrictions that had impeded
ability of AA’s to use their constitutional rights.
- Voting rights act 1965- banned all methods of voting restrictions, finally allowing AA’s
to exercise their right to vote.
- Jesse Jackson- Rainbow coalition, sought to bring together all minority groups to
fight against inequalities.
- MLK- did lots for political rights.
