Introduction to sociology glossary
Part 1 – Thinking like a sociologist.
Chapter 1 – Questions
Perspectives:
➔ Individual perspective Type of explanation of human behavior which focuses on
individual causes.
➔ Sociological perspective Type of explanation of human behavior which focuses on
social causes.
o Individual cause: i.e., low IQ, disorder
o Social cause: poverty, divorced parents
➔ Possible relations:
o Supplemental: individual and social causes
o Alternatives: individual or social causes
o Proximate and ultimate:
▪ Proximate cause: factors that are close to the phenomena to be
explained.
• Individual
▪ Ultimate cause: factors that underlie proximate causes.
• Social
Social context Social environment in which people are embedded.
➔ Scale levels:
o Micro level level at which individuals operate.
o Meso level Social contexts at the intermediate level.
▪ I.e., families, neighborhoods, organizations
o Macro level Social contexts that are broader than meso level units.
▪ I.e., nations, continents
Social phenomenon Collective human behavior.
Social problem/public issue
- Is one that goes beyond the personal troubles of the individual (affects many people).
- Is one that is an issue about which many people are concerned.
Personal trouble Problem related to the personal life of an individual.
3 aims of sociology:
- Describe: accurately describe social phenomena.
- Explain: come up with scientific explanation of the social phenomenon.
- Apply: apply and share sociological insights
o Predictions
o Social interventions: social policy measure
Societal relevance: relevance of sociological work for the understanding of social problems
,Scientific questions Questions that don’t entail value judgments.
o Descriptive questions Targeted towards describing phenomena.
▪ “How many…”, “What is…”
o Theoretical questions Targeted towards understanding phenomena.
▪ “What explains…”, “Why is…”
o Application questions Targeted towards applying scientific knowledge.
▪ “How would the …. develop?”
Normative questions Questions that entail value judgments.
➔ “Should there be more/less…”
To ask a good question you need to include:
- Precision
- Relevance
Ill-defined question Question which is vague and ambiguous
➔ “How high is the crime rate?”
Precise question Question which has clear interpretation
➔ Contain all four question ingredients (element of a question which can be specified).
o Behavior of intrest
o Social context
o Period
o Populations
➔ “How high is the male homicide rate in England in 2015?”
Scientific relevance Relevance of sociological work for the accumulation of sociological
knowledge
Literature review Systematic overview of the theories and observations that are known,
typically in a certain specialized field of research.
False theoretical Theoretical question which aims to explain something that doesn’t exist.
Comparative-case question Question which includes some comparison of cases, such as
multiple social contexts, multiple moments in time and/or populations.
Common sense Everyday thinking, intuitions, beliefs, and perceptions.
Private sociology The way human beings, in daily life, make sense of the social. As such they
are prone to, among other things, intuitive thinking, implicit reasoning, development of
incoherent and vague ideas, keeping knowledge private and searching for conformations.
Academic sociology The way academic institutions describe and explain the social world.
Characteristics are the systematic way of gathering knowledge, making explanations public
and subject to criticism, the development of coherent theories, and rigorous testing.
Background knowledge Prior theories and observations.
Cumulative science Background knowledge incorporated in successive work.
,Chapter 2 – Theories
Theory tools (tools which helps to systematically present a theory).
➔ Theory schema Type of theory tool in which prepositions, conditions, hypothesis and
observations are written out as a coherent set of verbal statements.
➔ Conceptual models Type of theory tool in which the causal relationships between
concepts are visualized.
➔ Formal model Type of theory tool in which theories are expressed with formalized
language.
Proposition Universal statement, i.e., statement about the causal relations between two or
more concepts.
Condition Assumption about the setting which relates prepositions to observations and
hypothesis.
Deductive-nomological explanation Form of explanation of phenomena using propositions
and conditions.
Hypothesis Testable prediction, derived from theory.
Modus tollens Logic rule which states that if it is hypothesized that A leads to B, and it is
observed that B is not true, then A cannot be true either.
Theory Coherent set of propositions and assumptions about conditions which can explain
certain phenomena, and which generate hypothesis (predictions) on other (yet unobserved
and hypothetical) phenomena.
Deeper explanation Type of explanation in which one proposition is explained by another,
more general proposition.
Scope condition Set of conditions to which a certain theory is applicable.
Typology A way of classifying reality, often done by combining concepts.
Independent variable Variable which influences another variable (dependent variable).
Dependent variable Variable which is affected by another variable (independent variable)
Direct causal relationship A relationship between two variables X and Y, such that changes in
X have a direct effect on changes in Y.
Mediator A variable Z that mediates the relationship between variables X and Y, such that
changes in X impact changes in Z, which then results in changes in Y.
Complete mediation The impact of X on Y is completely accounted for by a third variable, Z,
such that there is no other way that X effects Y than via Z.
Partial mediation The impact of X on Y is partially accounted for by a third variable, Z, such
that X affects Y via Z, but also via other variables.
Bidirectional relation (feedback relation) Relation between two variables X and Y, such that
changes in X result in changes in Y, and changes in Y result in changes in X.
Moderation effect (interaction effect) The relationship between X and Y is dependent on
variable Z.
Inductie -> waarnemingen naar theorie
Deductie -> theorie naar waarnemingen
Relative age effect: Preposition (relative age effect) explained by observations (hockey and
birth month in Canada and soccer and birth month in 1980s) prediction: Hypothesis (soccer
and birth month in 2000s).
, 2 elements of a useful theory:
- Truth: Empirical success the degree of empirical confirmation of a
theory (i.e., relative age effect).
- Information: Information content the degree of theoretical precision
and theoretical scop of a theory.
How to make theories more informative:
- Increase theoretical precision (the degree to which the theory excludes
possibilities of what could happen with respect to a particular case).
- Increase theoretical scope (the degree to which the theory is applicable
to a wider range of cases: phenomena, populations and settings).
In example: 1. Couples will or will not divorce within 10 years after marriage.
Increase theoretical precision: 2. Couples do not divorce within 10 years after
marriage.
Increase theoretical scope: 3. Couples do not divorce within 10 years after marriage,
but all of them eventually will be divorced when they are married for 15 years.
Sociological theories are considered more useful when:
1. The theory is more in line with empirical findings.
2. They theory is more precise and covers a wider range of phenomena.
Concepts (theoretical variable) hypothetical abstraction that contains certain categories.
➔ Three elements:
o Abstraction
o Hypothetical
o Categories
➔ Concepts are building blocks of theories. To avoid confusion, it is important to be
clear about what the key theoretical concepts mean. Give a definition of concepts,
preferably one that is clear, sufficiently distinctive from other concepts and in line
with common standards.
Providing clear definitions if important for avoiding misunderstanding.
➔ Rules of thumb:
o Most commonly used definition
o Clear formulation
o Sufficiently distinctive
Causality Idea that an independent variable (X) has an effect on a dependent variable (Y)
➔ Implies that there is a causal impact of X on Y.
➔ Three criteria:
o Association between X and Y.
▪ People who attend college should be less criminal than those who do
not attend college.
o Time order: X precedes Y.
▪ College attendance should precede differences in criminal activities.
o Non-spuriousness
▪ The association between college attendance and criminal activities
should not be the result of another variable.
Part 1 – Thinking like a sociologist.
Chapter 1 – Questions
Perspectives:
➔ Individual perspective Type of explanation of human behavior which focuses on
individual causes.
➔ Sociological perspective Type of explanation of human behavior which focuses on
social causes.
o Individual cause: i.e., low IQ, disorder
o Social cause: poverty, divorced parents
➔ Possible relations:
o Supplemental: individual and social causes
o Alternatives: individual or social causes
o Proximate and ultimate:
▪ Proximate cause: factors that are close to the phenomena to be
explained.
• Individual
▪ Ultimate cause: factors that underlie proximate causes.
• Social
Social context Social environment in which people are embedded.
➔ Scale levels:
o Micro level level at which individuals operate.
o Meso level Social contexts at the intermediate level.
▪ I.e., families, neighborhoods, organizations
o Macro level Social contexts that are broader than meso level units.
▪ I.e., nations, continents
Social phenomenon Collective human behavior.
Social problem/public issue
- Is one that goes beyond the personal troubles of the individual (affects many people).
- Is one that is an issue about which many people are concerned.
Personal trouble Problem related to the personal life of an individual.
3 aims of sociology:
- Describe: accurately describe social phenomena.
- Explain: come up with scientific explanation of the social phenomenon.
- Apply: apply and share sociological insights
o Predictions
o Social interventions: social policy measure
Societal relevance: relevance of sociological work for the understanding of social problems
,Scientific questions Questions that don’t entail value judgments.
o Descriptive questions Targeted towards describing phenomena.
▪ “How many…”, “What is…”
o Theoretical questions Targeted towards understanding phenomena.
▪ “What explains…”, “Why is…”
o Application questions Targeted towards applying scientific knowledge.
▪ “How would the …. develop?”
Normative questions Questions that entail value judgments.
➔ “Should there be more/less…”
To ask a good question you need to include:
- Precision
- Relevance
Ill-defined question Question which is vague and ambiguous
➔ “How high is the crime rate?”
Precise question Question which has clear interpretation
➔ Contain all four question ingredients (element of a question which can be specified).
o Behavior of intrest
o Social context
o Period
o Populations
➔ “How high is the male homicide rate in England in 2015?”
Scientific relevance Relevance of sociological work for the accumulation of sociological
knowledge
Literature review Systematic overview of the theories and observations that are known,
typically in a certain specialized field of research.
False theoretical Theoretical question which aims to explain something that doesn’t exist.
Comparative-case question Question which includes some comparison of cases, such as
multiple social contexts, multiple moments in time and/or populations.
Common sense Everyday thinking, intuitions, beliefs, and perceptions.
Private sociology The way human beings, in daily life, make sense of the social. As such they
are prone to, among other things, intuitive thinking, implicit reasoning, development of
incoherent and vague ideas, keeping knowledge private and searching for conformations.
Academic sociology The way academic institutions describe and explain the social world.
Characteristics are the systematic way of gathering knowledge, making explanations public
and subject to criticism, the development of coherent theories, and rigorous testing.
Background knowledge Prior theories and observations.
Cumulative science Background knowledge incorporated in successive work.
,Chapter 2 – Theories
Theory tools (tools which helps to systematically present a theory).
➔ Theory schema Type of theory tool in which prepositions, conditions, hypothesis and
observations are written out as a coherent set of verbal statements.
➔ Conceptual models Type of theory tool in which the causal relationships between
concepts are visualized.
➔ Formal model Type of theory tool in which theories are expressed with formalized
language.
Proposition Universal statement, i.e., statement about the causal relations between two or
more concepts.
Condition Assumption about the setting which relates prepositions to observations and
hypothesis.
Deductive-nomological explanation Form of explanation of phenomena using propositions
and conditions.
Hypothesis Testable prediction, derived from theory.
Modus tollens Logic rule which states that if it is hypothesized that A leads to B, and it is
observed that B is not true, then A cannot be true either.
Theory Coherent set of propositions and assumptions about conditions which can explain
certain phenomena, and which generate hypothesis (predictions) on other (yet unobserved
and hypothetical) phenomena.
Deeper explanation Type of explanation in which one proposition is explained by another,
more general proposition.
Scope condition Set of conditions to which a certain theory is applicable.
Typology A way of classifying reality, often done by combining concepts.
Independent variable Variable which influences another variable (dependent variable).
Dependent variable Variable which is affected by another variable (independent variable)
Direct causal relationship A relationship between two variables X and Y, such that changes in
X have a direct effect on changes in Y.
Mediator A variable Z that mediates the relationship between variables X and Y, such that
changes in X impact changes in Z, which then results in changes in Y.
Complete mediation The impact of X on Y is completely accounted for by a third variable, Z,
such that there is no other way that X effects Y than via Z.
Partial mediation The impact of X on Y is partially accounted for by a third variable, Z, such
that X affects Y via Z, but also via other variables.
Bidirectional relation (feedback relation) Relation between two variables X and Y, such that
changes in X result in changes in Y, and changes in Y result in changes in X.
Moderation effect (interaction effect) The relationship between X and Y is dependent on
variable Z.
Inductie -> waarnemingen naar theorie
Deductie -> theorie naar waarnemingen
Relative age effect: Preposition (relative age effect) explained by observations (hockey and
birth month in Canada and soccer and birth month in 1980s) prediction: Hypothesis (soccer
and birth month in 2000s).
, 2 elements of a useful theory:
- Truth: Empirical success the degree of empirical confirmation of a
theory (i.e., relative age effect).
- Information: Information content the degree of theoretical precision
and theoretical scop of a theory.
How to make theories more informative:
- Increase theoretical precision (the degree to which the theory excludes
possibilities of what could happen with respect to a particular case).
- Increase theoretical scope (the degree to which the theory is applicable
to a wider range of cases: phenomena, populations and settings).
In example: 1. Couples will or will not divorce within 10 years after marriage.
Increase theoretical precision: 2. Couples do not divorce within 10 years after
marriage.
Increase theoretical scope: 3. Couples do not divorce within 10 years after marriage,
but all of them eventually will be divorced when they are married for 15 years.
Sociological theories are considered more useful when:
1. The theory is more in line with empirical findings.
2. They theory is more precise and covers a wider range of phenomena.
Concepts (theoretical variable) hypothetical abstraction that contains certain categories.
➔ Three elements:
o Abstraction
o Hypothetical
o Categories
➔ Concepts are building blocks of theories. To avoid confusion, it is important to be
clear about what the key theoretical concepts mean. Give a definition of concepts,
preferably one that is clear, sufficiently distinctive from other concepts and in line
with common standards.
Providing clear definitions if important for avoiding misunderstanding.
➔ Rules of thumb:
o Most commonly used definition
o Clear formulation
o Sufficiently distinctive
Causality Idea that an independent variable (X) has an effect on a dependent variable (Y)
➔ Implies that there is a causal impact of X on Y.
➔ Three criteria:
o Association between X and Y.
▪ People who attend college should be less criminal than those who do
not attend college.
o Time order: X precedes Y.
▪ College attendance should precede differences in criminal activities.
o Non-spuriousness
▪ The association between college attendance and criminal activities
should not be the result of another variable.
